7/8 to 7/14 2024

What as week it has been. There have been plenty of opportunities to practice and embody Stoicism as I was taught. 

As Seneca says often, one must study virtue and learn it, then train at and practice it, then it is strengthened by action. In Letter 94 he says, "Virtue depends partly upon training and partly upon practice; you must learn first, and then strengthen your learning by action." and in Letter 90 he says, "Virtue is not vouchsafed to a soul unless that soul has been trained and taught, and by unremitting practice brought to perfection."

We were on vacation at Bear Lake, Utah at a family reunion the week leading up to the 4th of July. After going to the South Texas Merchant Marine pleb-candidate send off on Saturday June 29, we went to bed that night after saying our goodbye to our 2nd-year mid-shipman who was leaving for Kings Point on Sunday June 30. We began our two day drive to Utah at 5am. After our two-day drive, we spent the week in Utah, enjoying the cold nights, brilliant summer days on the beach and in the blue and turquoise water. We visited relatives in Logan and Salt Lake, and my wife and I got a taste of what it would be like to live in the West again. We began contemplating what it would look like and what we would do if we were to transplant ourselves to Logan.

During the whole week, we kept our eye on Hurricane Beryl. As the end of the week approached, we saw the forecasts revised multiple times with each update moving the hurricane evermore eastward toward Texas and up the Gulf Coast. By Sunday, we knew it was going to hit Houston. We began our two-day drive back, stopping in Amarillo Sunday night. We went to bed knowing that when we woke up the next day, the hurricane would be on top of Houston. Our three pets were at home and a pet & house sitter was there, but nonetheless we were worried. 

Day 1

Monday July 8 was our drive home from Amarillo to Houston. All morning long, we had KTRH streaming on iHeart. We were in contact with the pet & house sitter, but we also knew our dogs and cat (well, maybe not the cat) were stressed. Our one dog always gets super stressed with storms. Plus, we were anxious to get home to relieve the sitter and we could take on all the concern and worries. Power at the house went out at 4:39am Monday morning (based on time stamp data of my Ring cameras). The drive seemed longer. We dropped our oldest daughter off in Austin and then made our back into the greater Houston area. We stopped at Brenham, filled up and got some food, knowing we may not be able to get gas when we got into the city. Our neighbors checked on our home and said it was ok, but our back neighbor's tree fell into our yard, obliterated our shed, with our generator pinned under the tree.

The drive into our suburb was like a war zone. All traffic lights were out. There were hundreds of downed trees, some blocking the main roads, some smashed into homes or signs or power lines. We had to take many back roads and even back track a few times in order to get home. We arrived home in the late afternoon, with no power. We unpacked and then I started assessing damage and cleaning up the many limbs and branches all over our yard. I made a huge pile by the curbside of all the debris. Besides the fallen tree, there is one big branch hanging from one of our three mature trees, which has been snapped.

We began formulating a plan and determined that power would not be restored for quite some time. We went to bed that night with no AC or fans. But at least we were with the pets again and the home survived any major damage. Having gone through Hurricane Harvey, I knew the next few days or weeks would be difficult but perhaps more endurable than Harvey.

Day 2

Tuesday July 9 brought more planning and assessment of the situation. We determined that power would not come back anytime soon. We were living in Dallas during Hurricane Ike and from talking to neighbors who lived through Ike, they said it was two weeks before power was restored. In fact, our neighbors almost made it sound like it was just a two week party of BBQs and watching college football with TVs hooked up to generators. We decided that my wife and youngest would take the pets to Austin to stay with my oldest for the week. They packed up Tuesday morning, emptied the fridges and left by late morning. I got up early morning and logged into work via my cell phone's hot spot.  I read a few emails and updated my team. I was stuck in our suburb with potential blockages on roads and only a quarter tank of gas. I decided to go hunting for any gas I could find.

No gas in our suburb. No gas in adjacent towns. No gas up the freeway. I kept driving hoping for one gas station, thinking that maybe there would be power in outlying areas. But none were open. After driving almost an hour, I rolled into a town and decided to park at an H-E-B and wait.  I wasn't sure if I had enough gas to get back home.  As I watched the constant flow of cars roll by, it felt surreal. Many of them were looking for gas too. I ended up talking to a gentlemen who was stuck. He had no choice but to wait as his truck was bone-dry.  He had driven up to Livingston to help his ex-wife and now he was headed back to San Antonio, but needed gas. There was another gentlemen who pulled up while we were talking and he came from the same suburb as the one I live in.  He was doing the same thing as me - just looking to fill up. I wondered if I should attempt the drive home. I did some rough calculations in my head and decided that worse case scenario, I run out of gas very near home or in my suburb. So I trekked back home and drove below the speed limit.  I made it back all the way home with a needle just above E.

I decided I was going to be stuck home the whole week, unless my daughter's car had some gas in it. After I got home, I checked her van (it is the old family van) and she had a full tank! My plan then pivoted to driving into work (which has power and connectivity) and maybe even just sleep in the van or find a place to sleep at work.

After getting all packed, the sun set. It is an eerie experience to be in a dark, hot home all alone. I lit the candles and sad down to 

Day 3

Wednesday July 10 actually wasn't that bad. Things seemed to be more normal at work. It was nice to be in AC again and be connected. I logged in threw myself into work. Since I had been out a week, there was a lot to catch up on. We had a team member who recently left our group, and there was a going-away lunch that day. We ate lunch at the Island Grill and it had a really nice vibe with natural lighting, good food and lots of people. It felt good to have some normalcy again.

I worked the rest of the day, and when I came to a stopping point, I logged off, went to a conference room and logged onto my personal computer and began working on school. Since there was nothing to go home to, I stayed at work until around 9pm. Then I decided to drive home and go to bed.  The home was stale and warm. Cell phone reception was spotty at best and I couldn't even access anything on my phone. I lit a candle, laid on the floor and read Meditations.

Eventually I went to bed, but it was a challenge with no air flow and no sound machine.

Day 4 & 5

Thursday July 11 and Friday July 12 were pretty much a repeat of Wednesday. Getting up was easy, because I was motivated to shower and cool off. I drove to work and was there by 5:30am; I worked all day, studied school after work and then drove home to a restless sleep.

Thursday night, after wrapping up my studies, I went to Island Grill again and had a nice meal and watched the Astros game on TV. That was memorable and was a very nice reprieve from reality.

Friday was different when I got home that night. We had power again! Unfortunately, the AC would not kick on, so the house remained quite warm at 83 degrees, but at least I had some air flow from the ceiling fans. I called Jill and told her the power was back on and she said they would drive home on Saturday.

Day 6 & 7

Saturday July 13 we had the AC tech come out, but he discovered there was no power flowing to the furnace unit and we needed and electrician to come out and troubleshoot it. Jill and Camille and the pets came home later in the day and began prepping for their trip to Belize. I contacted our electrician and he said he would come out later that day.  But he never showed and wasn't responding to texts.

On Sunday July 14, I took them to the airport and then started calling and texting any electrician who could come check on our AC. I found one and he was on his way when the power went out again! But thankfully it came back on about 30 minutes later.  The electrician and his wife showed up, I told them the issue and they began troubleshooting. He discovered the wire from the main panel to a subpanel was not rated correctly and burn it to a crisp. He put a joiner or something on it and fixed it.  Power came back, the AC kicked on and things finally began to turn normal again.

Beyond

The following week, I made contact with several tree services to remove the fallen tree in our back yard. Some wanted to charge me $5000, others $2000, but we finally found two that would do it for $1000.  They cut it and hauled it to the curb. Price gouging is definitely a thing.

There are piles of dead trees and branches on every street. Some homes needed to bring in cranes to reach up to the fallen trees embedded into homes. It will be months before the rest of the city returns to normal. We had a couple stop by our home asking what work they could provide to our yard. I asked them to give me a quote to haul off the three massive piles on my yard and they said they could do it, along with breaking down and hauling off our smashed shed for under $500. Next up will be fence repair.

As of July 22, there are no hurricanes on the horizon, but even if we get to the end of July, we'll have another solid 60 days of prime hurricane weather.

PSYCH 406 (Psychopathology) - Trauma and Pathologizing the Norm

Abstract

This essay discusses the observation of Western culture’s fascination with trauma, along with the history of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and how that diagnosis has expanded its scope. It also notes that most humans are resilient in adversity and trauma. For those who suffer long-lasting effects of trauma and exhibit PTSD symptoms, they should seek professional help and support.

Introduction

For many movie-goers, the summer is a great time to head to the silver screen and watch action, drama, and intriguing stories play out in spectacular visuals and chest-thumping sounds. This year, audiences are anticipating the third installment of the Deadpool series. For the uninitiated, Deadpool is an antihero known for his sharp sarcasm and dark humor. For example, in a scene from the first Deadpool movie (Miller, 2016), when he meets his girlfriend, Vanessa, the two enter a back-and-forth banter about the trauma and rough childhood they’ve endured. While this essay won’t recall the entire repartee, one of the less dark and non-sexual exchanges gives a good sense of the dialogue. At one point, Deadpool quips his bedroom was a hall closet, to which Vanessa volleys back she had to sleep in a dishwasher box, to which Deadpool replies, “you had a dishwasher?” (Miller, 2016). While dark and humorous, this represents the zeitgeist of modern culture’s romanticization of trauma .

In a recent Psychology Today article (2022, January 4), Robin Stern wrote regarding her observations of many examples of how society, particularly Western society, has become enamored with stories of trauma. From a conversation she had with her trainee about how she couldn’t get enough details of her clients’ trauma, to books by Bessel von der Kelk and Paul Conti  on bestsellers lists and to a documentary by Gabor Maté, all are examples of how the topic of trauma is having a significant cultural moment. However, Stern and others have wondered if there is a misunderstanding of what trauma is. Are people truly experiencing trauma, or are they simply experiencing stress, grief, or big life events ? Maddux and Winstead (2016, p. 162) in the chapter on trauma and stressor disorders note that there is “larger debate [regarding the] pathologizing of normal human suffering and the overdiagnosis of disorders .”

This essay will discuss the phenomenon of society’s romance with trauma and the issue of pathologizing normal behaviors (Harrist & Richardson, 2014). It will then pivot to a discussion on what constitutes real, clinical trauma and two psychosocial models of the etiology of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Maddux & Winstead, 2016). Lastly, the essay will contend that many people suffer significant stress and emotional events, however, most are resilient and will recover (Bonanno, 2021). For those who truly suffer trauma, they too will largely recover, but for those who meet the criteria of PTSD, they should seek professional help.

Pathologizing Normal Behavior

Harrist and Richardson (2014) discuss many ways in which seemingly normal behavior has been pathologized in Western culture. They note how melancholy and despair may actually be perfectly normal responses to the instable world in which we live, yet modern science attempts to solve these responses with pharmaceuticals . They further wonder why hoarding is considered a mental disorder when people fill their house to the roof with junk but people who “amass billions of dollars while other people starve” are not pathologized (Harrist & Richardson, 2014, p. 202). But more importantly, they discuss the roots and genesis of the PTSD diagnosis.

They cite an article published in the British Medical Journal of how the old diagnoses of battle fatigue and war neurosis were replaced by PTSD. The early supporters of the PTSD diagnosis were also part of the anti-war movement during the Vietnam War. Under the new diagnosis of PTSD, war veterans could receive unique medical care. But more importantly, PTSD fundamentally changed the way soldiers were viewed and treated. Instead of the focus being on the unique history of the soldier and his psyche, PTSD “legitimized their victimhood” and the PTSD diagnosis was perhaps more of a statement against the nature of war than anything else (Harrist & Richardson, 2014, p. 203). This change was a pivotal moment as the diagnosis expanded in scope for the next several decades to explain not only battle trauma, but also “symptoms of distress following disturbing events, even ones relatively commonplace or just witnessed, not directly experienced, by individuals” (Harrist & Richardson, 2014, p. 203).

Returning to Stern (Psychology Today Contributors, 2022, January 4), she describes why PTSD and related disorders have seemingly expanded their scope. The experiences people share of  trauma are often remarkable and fascinating and “have a strong emotional charge” especially when compared to more normal experiences of people from overprotected and isolated lives. There is an aura about traumatic stories and people who live through those experiences are imbued with a type of fame and fascination. Others wish to share their own stressful experiences to gain traumatic credibility. But as Harrist and Richardson (2014) warn, while people may indeed experience big emotional events, the trauma of soldiers, war victims, and victims of sexual violence, to name a few, should not be “trivialized.” Definitions matter and delineation must be made clear between normal behavior in response to a significant event, and clinical trauma that people suffer from living through horrific events.

Clinical Trauma and Psychosocial Etiology Models of PTSD

While there have been changes to the PTSD entry between the DSM-4 and the DSM-5, such as moving it from an anxiety disorder to the newly created category of trauma- and stressor-related disorders, the key features of PTSD remain relatively the same (Maddux & Winstead, 2016, p. 165). The traumatic experiences must be related to death, the threat of death, significant bodily injury, or sexual violence. Victims may either experience these events directly or they may indirectly experience them such as when a close family member directly experiences it and then conveys the details of the horrific event to the victim. Stemming from one or more of these experiences, the victim should demonstrate intrusive memories, dreams, or psychological and even physiological effects from reminders of the traumatic event. They will avoid any reminders of the event and may begin to have cognitive distortions, memory loss, emotional distress, and  even detachment. From there, they will develop and exhibit strong response arousal, careless behavior, hypervigilance, or experience problems with concentration or sleep. The victim must suffer many of the above symptoms for more than one month after the event. Underlying all these symptoms is the victim’s inability to process or integrate the traumatic experiences into their life. In turn, they are left with less than adequate coping mechanisms.

Based on a sample of people in the United States, it is estimated that over 60% of men and 51% of women experience trauma (Maddux & Winstead, 2016, p. 163). The majority of those adapt and do not experience long-term maladaptive coping mechanisms. As for why some people might cope well and adapt to a traumatic experience while others do not, there are many etiological theories that explain why some suffer PTSD. This essay will only touch on two: cognitive and emotional processing .

The cognitive etiological model theorizes that the individual’s beliefs and knowledge about himself, the world, and other people are maladaptive and weak, and when the individual experiences a traumatic event, their beliefs and conception of safety, are crushed (Maddux & Winstead, 2016, p. 169). They are unable to process the events and make meaning out of the experience. In fact, Harrist and Richardson (2014, p. 207) note that in a highly individualistic culture, many people don’t experience “shared meanings and coping strategies” and are thus left to their own devices to cope with trauma. In turn, they become overwhelmed and experience PTSD.

The emotional processing etiological model is based on the theory that the individual creates fear structures to deal with dangers in their environment. However, when these fear structures build excessive responses, the individual becomes inflexible in learning how to modify their responses (Maddux & Winstead, 2016, pp. 170-171). For example, a person with PTSD will demonstrate avoidance behavior, which in turn prevents them from tapping into and updating  their fear structure in a way that would enable them to successfully adapt to an event. 

As briefly noted, most people who suffer a traumatic event are able to make meaning out of the experience, adapt, and recover from the stress of trauma. In all this discussion on trauma and PTSD, it has been broadly observed that humans are quite adaptable, even when confronted with the worst of trauma.

The Resilient Human

Maddux and Winstead (2016, p. 163) produce a chart that visually demonstrates that even with the traumatic events of sexual and non-sexual assaults, people are able to recover and adapt well after the event. For sexual assault victims, 70% report PTSD symptoms one month after the event. That percentage continues to drop over time, going as low as 30% one year after the event. For non-sexual assault victims, 40% report PTSD symptoms one month after the event with a declining trend over time, going to 10% at the one-year mark. Overall, the data suggest there is a “natural recovery curve” (2016, p. 162), in which most victims can make a strong recovery. Only a small minority of victims experience PTSD .

All of this data supports the claim that perhaps by pathologizing and stigmatizing many big, emotional, stressful events, as a whole, society may be undercutting the process of recovery . To lend greater support and care for a victim, pathologies are created, and focus is placed on the symptoms, rather than successful and creative coping mechanisms. There is also a significant individualization and rights-based view of modern pathologies. Harrist and Richardson (2014, p. 204) note this paradigm “underestimates and tends to undermine the creative capacity of people to cope with, and even at times find meaning in, suffering and traumatic experiences.”

Harrist and Richarson (2014, p. 204) continue their discussion with examples of two non-Western cultures that do not pathologize not only big, emotional, stressful events, but not even trauma. Researchers and counselors went to Sri Lanka after the 2004 tsunami and worn-torn Afghanistan and realized people exhibited symptoms not on the PTSD list and when they tried to provide individualized grief counseling, the isolation “actually [exacerbated] fears of loss or disturbance of one’s role in the community.”

Returning to Stern (Psychology Today Contributors, 2022, January 4), she contends our judgment becomes impaired when we become captivated by stories of trauma . By immersing ourselves in our own emotions, we may overlook the needs of the person telling his or her traumatic story. Most importantly, we underestimate our resilience and fail to recognize our true strength. She goes on to discuss some broad observations from one researcher who has studied this topic for many years. She quotes George Bonanno who says, “Most people are resilient …some people are traumatized; some people recover. There are different trajectories.” In fact, in one of Bonanno’s more recent articles entitled The Resilience Paradox (2021, p. 2), he and other researchers reviewed 67 studies to better understand “outcome trajectories” of people who endure a potentially traumatic event (PTE). He writes, “two thirds of the participants showed the resilience trajectory. Thus, not only is resilience to PTEs common, it is consistently the majority outcome.”

In sum, many studies and researchers have noted that the human is resilient in the face of big, emotional, stressful events and even traumatic events. While trying to determine the root cause of why some suffer PTSD and others do not, researchers are finding that PTSD is fairly rare. For those who do suffer many of the symptoms of PTSD for months after the traumatic event, they should continue to seek support from clinicians, counselors, and a support structure.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this essay examined the phenomenon of society’s romance with trauma and the issue of pathologizing normal behaviors. Western culture seems to be experiencing a cultural moment with its fascination of hearing others’ traumatic experiences. While many people do experience big, emotional, stressful events, they are most likely not suffering clinical PTSD. PTSD is reserved for people who experience events related to death, the threat of death, significant bodily injury, or sexual violence. Furthermore, they develop long-lasting, maladaptive coping mechanisms. There are many theories of the etiology of PTSD, of which two are emotional processing and cognitive. Ultimately, many people suffer significant stress and emotional events, however, most are resilient and will recover. Even for those who truly suffer trauma related to death, bodily and sexual violence, they too will largely recover, but those who meet the criteria of PTSD and who have lasting effects, they should seek professional help and support from their family, friends, and social networks . 

References

Bonanno, G. A. (2021). The resilience paradox. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1942642–1942642. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1942642 

Harrist, R. S., & Richardson, F. C. (2014). Pathologizing the Normal, Individualism, and Virtue Ethics. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 44(3), 201-211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-013-9255-7

Maddux, J. E., & Winstead, B. A. (2016). Psychopathology : Foundations For A Contemporary Understanding (4th ed.). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

Miller, T. (Director). (2016, February 8). Deadpool. 20th Century Fox.

Psychology Today Contributors. (2022, January 4). 5 Big New Trends | Psychology Today. Www.psychologytoday.com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/articles/202201/5-big-new-trends  

PSYCH 406 (Psychopathology) - TikTok and Diagnosis

 Abstract

This essay discusses the trend of self-diagnosis for mental disorders by people consuming social media, such as TikTok videos. It then examines the complexity of proper diagnosis while discussing the challenges the DSM-5 faces in providing clear guidance on diagnosis. Lastly, it addresses the risks of self-diagnosis and steps people can take to not succumb to those risks.

Introduction

In the summer of 2022, my family was about to enjoy a much-needed vacation. But before we began the 1500-mile drive, we were slightly concerned about a noise from the family van. The van was dropped off at the local mechanic who regularly changes the oil in all our vehicles. Later in the afternoon, the mechanic called back and said the van would need a $7000 repair and even suggested buying a new car might be cheaper. Shocked by this diagnosis, we took the van to another mechanic we knew from buying a used car. After a day, this other mechanic said he had seen this problem in vans many times before and it would cost less than $500 to repair. Of course, we went with the second mechanic and the van is still working great to this day.

The risks and dangers of misdiagnoses can be significant, even for a mechanical car that is relatively less complicated than the human brain. In the case of our van, the misdiagnosis would have cost us significantly and the problem would still not have been fixed. However, for humans, the risks and dangers of misdiagnosing a mental condition can be even more substantial. 

With the widespread availability of information online and the broad reach of social media, the practice of self-diagnosis and sharing one’s story online has presented new challenges to the mental health community. The framework for diagnoses, including the use of the DSM-5, is intended to facilitate common understanding and nomenclature for psychologists and psychiatrists, as well as aid in predictions and information sharing and even guide therapeutic practices (Maddux & Winstead, 2016; David & Deeley, 2024). But despite significant research and debate, the DSM-5 is not perfect, which fact underscores the complexity of diagnosis. Even so, many unqualified and untrained people self-diagnose because of ease of access to the DSM-5 and because they hear others discussing their symptoms of disorders on social media. This practice has led to problems such as definition dilution and perceived absolution of responsibility for one’s actions (Cassata, 2024; David & Deeley, 2024). While self-diagnosis may have its place, individuals who choose this route should always seek professional assistance and remain open to the possibility that their self-diagnosis could be incorrect.

Self-diagnosis of Mental Disorders Via TikTok

Juliana Dodds (The Project, 2022) did not feel understood. In a search for answers, she turned to watching content on social media, including TikTok. When she heard others’ stories, she felt they could fully explain her perspective. Many people, like Juliana, are looking for answers as to why they act the way they do. For some people, the discovery of social media influencers explaining their symptoms becomes a launching point of self-discovery, which leads to a conversation with their psychologist and may confirm the diagnosis. However, not all cases are as straightforward as watching a video, talking to a therapist, and receiving confirmation of a diagnosis. Others may feel validated after watching social media, but when discussing the issue with a psychologist, and after being tested multiple times, the self-diagnosis is incorrect. Some patients become convinced they have a specific mental disorder despite what the psychologist says. Juliana falls in the latter category, and although her doctor diagnosed her with complex post-traumatic stress disorder, she is convinced she has attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

The trend of self-diagnosis stemming from social media has become so pervasive, that a recent study was conducted to understand how accurate or inaccurate these influencers are. Cassata (2024) reviewed the study conducted by Drexel University’s A.J. Drexel Autism Institute and found that less than a third of the most popular autism-related content included correct information and that over 40% of those videos “were completely inaccurate.” The study further noted the extent of the misinformation, stating that many egregiously inaccurate videos had been viewed close to 150 million times. While the power and reach of social media grants millions of people access to potentially valuable information, which may kick-start them on the path to recovery, it nevertheless remains vitally important that proper diagnosis is applied. Often the diagnosis process takes time and can be very complex.

DSM-5 and Complexity of Diagnosis

The DSM-5-TR (American Psychological Association, 2022) contains over 1,000 pages of text, criteria, definitions, tables, and statistics. Countless hours of research and debate underlies the wide-ranging scope of mental diagnoses enumerated in the manual. In the section entitled “Use of the Manual” the authors both describe the extensive assessment that should be performed, as well as warn readers of the dangers of “simply [checking] off the symptoms” (p. 21, 2022). Indeed, case formulation should include a detailed clinical history and a succinct summary of the social, psychological, and biological factors that may have contributed to the development of a particular mental disorder. Even after all factors have been considered, ultimately, clinical judgment is critical in determining the relative severity and significance of an individual's signs, symptoms, and diagnosis.

Despite the numerous hours of research and effort poured into the DSM-5, a review of its history proves that this resource is not perfect. While great strides have been made to make it the valuable resource it is today, forthcoming editions and revisions will face difficulty in basing future additions on empirical support as well as managing the shift from a categorial model to a dimensional model (see Maddux & Winstead, p. 100, 2016).

With many research questions left unanswered, some take the approach of advocating for the addition of a disorder to garner attention so that empirical data could be collected on the disorder, as was the case with “severe irritability in youth” (p. 101, 2016). While perhaps a worthy cause, this practice has the risk of defining a disorder that does not truly exist. As to the shift in classification, more are beginning to recognize the consistent failures of the categorical model, and therefore the DSM-5 has begun the shift toward a dimensional model. Shifting to a dimensional model will allow for a continuum of mental disorders based on severity, frequency, or intensity, and will allow clinicians to provide a richer diagnosis as well as improved pathways to treatment.

In sum, the numerous considerations that should go into a diagnosis are guided by years of clinical training, as well as countless hours of research and debate to produce the DSM-5. Even with the critiques the DSM-5 faces, this situation further underscores the importance of a proper diagnosis by trained and qualified clinicians, and self-diagnosis from watching a TikTok video is fraught with peril.

Risks and Proper Use of Self-diagnosis

Virtually anyone can access the DSM-5. While obtaining this resource is easy, its use in diagnosing a disorder requires hours of training and practice. Many people will read the DSM-5 and begin to draw conclusions that they exhibit the hallmarks of a particular disorder. They may even take the added step of sharing their story on social media. Others follow proper channels and seek an expert to determine if the disorder warrants an official diagnosis. Two major risks of self-diagnosing are definition dilution (Cassata, 2024) and perceived absolution of responsibility for one’s actions (David & Deeley, 2024). While self-diagnosis, whether through reading the DSM-5 or watching a video on social media, may be the catalyst for the individual to get the help they need, they must not stop there. They ought to consult an expert and seek professional help.

One major risk of self-diagnosis is definition dilution. This means as more untrained people improperly explain a diagnosis on social media, the viewers of those misinformed videos also jump to inaccurate conclusions. The viewers, in turn, spread the misinformation, as well as become convinced they have a particular disorder. When a viewer visits a trained clinician and hears they may have a different disorder, the patient may become upset and even believe they are being gaslit (Cassata, 2024).

Another major risk of self-diagnosis is the perception that the patient is absolved of the responsibility for seeking a cure because fundamentally the self-diagnosing patient believes the symptoms they exhibit are normal and do not constitute a disorder. David and Deeley (2024) observed that self-diagnosis stems from “grass roots movements” such as the neurodiversity movement, which seek to “[reframe] several diagnostic categories as (mere) variations of normality” and even propose that these are not disorders (p. 1057, 2024). Once this concept (that a disorder is normal) is accepted (either individually or socially), the individual could assume an attitude that “the world needs to accommodate him and ‘his autism’” and he need not search for a cure or alter his behavior in any way (p. 1058, 2024).

There is room for allowing the potential for self-diagnosis, with several caveats. If a person has sought professional help and if in the course of exploring all possibilities, the patient discovers information on social media, and most importantly, if they discuss what they’ve learned with their trained mental health provider, then perhaps social media has a place in the diagnosis process. The Internet has connected billions of people. For some who may have limited resources and time, perhaps social media content might fast-track the diagnosis process. But the importance of not succumbing to naïveté cannot be emphasized enough. The patient should always keep an open mind when consuming social media and should generally be willing to trust trained experts. Cassata (2024) interviewed a trained clinician who wisely stated, “Social media, in and of itself, is not the enemy … the real threat seems to be our unquestioning, naïve relationship to social media and our belief that diagnoses can be self-made without consulting a professional.”

Conclusion

In conclusion, with the widespread availability of online information and the broad reach of social media, self-diagnosis and sharing personal stories online have posed new challenges to clinicians, psychologists, and therapists. The diagnostic framework, including the DSM-5, is designed to create a common understanding and lexicon for psychologists and psychiatrists. It also aids in making predictions, facilitating information sharing, and guiding therapeutic practices. However, despite extensive research and debate, the DSM-5 is not perfect, which further highlights the complexity of diagnosis. Nonetheless, many unqualified and untrained individuals self-diagnose due to the ease of access to information and exposure to stories influencers share on social media. This practice has led to issues such as the dilution of diagnostic definitions and the perceived absolution of responsibility for one's actions. While there may be a space for self-diagnosis, those who go down this path should always consult professional help and always keep an open mind that the self-diagnosis may be wrong. 

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, text revision (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association.

Cassata, C. (2024, April 11). Autism: TikTok Leading People to Inaccurate Self-Diagnosis (J. Peeples & J. Seladi-Schulman, Eds.). Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health-news/autism-self-diagnosis-tiktok

David, A. S., & Deeley, Q. (2024). Dangers of self-diagnosis in neuropsychiatry. Psychological Medicine, 54(6), 1057-1060. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291724000308 

Maddux, J. E., & Winstead, B. A. (2016). Psychopathology : Foundations For A Contemporary Understanding (4th ed.). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

The Project. (2022, December 6). Dr TikTok: People Using TikTok To Self-Diagnose Neurodivergent Conditions Such As ADHD Or Autism. Www.youtube.com. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qhx7PnHZ7cY&ab_channel=TheProject 

From Shipwreck to Fire

Remembering Heraclitus: Themes

If the dry, fiery soul is the wise, “enlightened individual” (Sweet, p. 59, 2007), then the damp, wet, or even drenched soul needs genuine, philosophical insight. And how curious to encounter this footnote in Remembering Heraclitus: “Ortega y Gasset in his Loss of Self in Art suggests that the philosophic impulse arises from ‘feeling shipwrecked upon things’” (Geldard, p. 96, 2001). The image is striking: a sopping-wet captain and his crew attempting to flee their ship that has crashed on craggy rocks! How far from being dry are those souls and in that sinking moment, when lives and fortunes are ruined, they are left wondering what has become of them. What twisted turn of events in navigation, reading bearings, and accounting of weather did they go afoul? They have become shipwrecked and now the process of recovery and the path to dryness and even fire begins – their first impulse to philosophy commences.

Perhaps the analogy can be further considered. Will the shipwrecked crew try again? Will they take the lessons they learned to heart to avoid a future shipwreck, or even despite their best efforts to avoid misfortune, will they nonetheless run aground unforeseen shallow rock? Is this never-ending cycle of flux their fate? Do their daimons lead them down this looping path to the point that their fate defines their character? And lastly, if they are to tread the endless path of flux, do they ever stop and wonder what their purpose is – what their telos is? Perhaps, like Zeno of Citium, a shipwreck offers transcendence and brings deep and fundamental discernment to the unfortunate soul, thus revealing their telos, and they never return to their former endeavor (see Long, p. 109, 1986). Is misfortune truly fortune? This essay will ruminate on these questions using Richard Geldard’s Remembering Heraclitus (2001) as the backdrop for the discussion.

Your Character is your Daimon

Fragment 119 is translated in various ways. Geldard (2001) notes that most translators translate it as “character is fate.” Sweet’s (2007) translation is “one’s character is one’s divine fortune” while Robinson’s (1991) is “a person’s character is his fate (divinity). As for Geldard (2001), he translates it as, “for human beings, character is the divine force.” There is a spectrum of interpretations for how one may grasp the meaning of this fragment. We may suppose our fate is entirely out of our hands and we seemingly resign ourselves to the fates the gods have doled out to us. Or we may interpret this fragment as a declaration of our freedom in which we get to control our attitude, narrative, and volition – we are the authors of our character. Geldard reviews various analyses of this fragment, one of which represents both ends of the spectrum as one and the same.

We have no say in the matter of which life we are thrown into. We don’t get to weave our DNA and choose our parents, nor even choose the best traits and aspects of our parents. In fact, we may even be chained with generational baggage, emotions, and “debt” if you take an Eastern philosophical view of the matter (see Geldard, p. 89, 2001). From this perspective of the fragment, our daimon is exerting destiny and fate upon us the moment our cells begin to replicate. But that is only one side of the coin, to reference the analogy Geldard uses. The other side of the coin represents the “so what?”

The character Andy Dufresne from Shawshank Redemption (Darabont, 1994) faced stacked odds against him, but how he responded to his fate (his daimon) ultimately defined his character. Indeed, our fate or perhaps our daimon, as our guardian spirit, senses the required obstacles we must face which act as catalysts for us to either succumb to defeat or to achieve a defining moment. From this side of the coin, then, we should not moan or gripe in the face of impediments, but rather we should thank the gods for showing us the way to finding our true character. As the well-known Marcus Aurelius passage teaches, regarding other people, the elements, and even wild animals, these are “hindrance[s]” and “obstacles” that indicate the “path” on which we can advance (Meditations 5, 20). In sum, our fate and impediments point the way to our character.

However, in a cosmos that never rests from change, we must be cognizant of the unending myriad of obstacles. We may think our character has been refined through the process of managing an impediment, but the reality is that the constant state of flux will demand we confront barriers endlessly.

Constant Flux

Fractals are intriguing mathematical constructs that exhibit self-similarity at different scales yet are vastly complex and ever-evolving. In other words, they are shapes that look similar or even identical depending on the focus and scale of the perspective. They're often intricate and detailed, yet they are built on simple repeating patterns or processes. Fractals can be found in nature, such as in the branching patterns of trees, the distribution of galaxies, the structure of coastlines, and even in the shape of clouds. Perhaps fractals are an apt metaphor for reality and existence as a whole: infinite, ever-changing, ever-evolving. Once set in motion, the math behind the fractal iterates and expands endlessly.

One of the major themes of Heraclitus is the nature of flux and the cause of it. According to Heraclitus, part of the process of acquiring wisdom is to be awake and conscious to comprehend “the thought that directs all things through all things” (Geldard, p. 46, 2001). Geldard then makes an interesting connection by quoting Anaxagoras who noted, “mind is infinite and self-sustaining, is unmixed, alone, and by itself …. [and] drives the whole revolution, so that it revolved initially, first in a small area and now more widely, and eventually more widely still” (p. 46, 2001). Could this description be applied to a fractal? Perhaps. And if this is the true nature of the Cosmos and as humans are intricately entwined in the details of the Cosmos, we must accept the idea that our own minds are tiny fractals in a larger fractal both of which are constantly changing and evolving and part of a massive chain which is infinite. Consider Fragment 45: “One would never discover the limits of soul, should one traverse every road - so deep a measure does it possess” (Robinson, 1991). Succinctly stated, change causes change and never ceases.

However, what does flux mean to the individual? First, the individual must heed the wisdom Heraclitus states. We must accept that change is constant and never-ending. To wail at the passing of every dead skin cell or formation of a wrinkle or to be overjoyed at the birth of a kitten or bloom of a rose is not wisdom. Implied in these overextensions of emotion is a desire for something to remain the same. A better reaction to change is to accept it and even embrace it.

Secondly, the individual must look both deeper into and take a wider perspective of the fractal. Upon further reflection of flux, and the more one becomes familiar with change, he will begin to note that there is a cyclical nature to existence. Seasons change; families shrink and grow; history seems both different, yet the same. If one becomes discerning enough, he will realize that feeling sadness or anxiety about change is folly, especially since he may have a chance to experience something anew. Spring flowers are never lost. Embracing a loved one on their death bed may seem to be final, yet sometimes we may feel we love the same soul in another person, such as the way a grandmother may have cooked a particular dinner is revealed again in the way a grandchild mimics the meal.

Lastly, for the individual facing endless change, perhaps the most important lesson for them to embrace is this: given the constant change and given the fact that the more change happens, the more we see similarity, then perhaps the long-term response to all flux and cycles is to live in harmony with the Cosmos – to live according to Nature as the Stoics would propose. One could argue that the individual should assume a long-term perspective and attitude about life. If change is constant and if we encounter repeat obstacles, then we ought to seek the choice that most aligns with the nature of existence. While an entire paper can be spent on this topic, instead of reading that essay, the reader may wish to watch and ponder two videos regarding the well-known economics game theory model called The Prisoner’s Dilemma. Video one (Agar, 2014) explains the prisoner’s dilemma, while video two explains the fascinating strategies employed while playing the game repeatedly (Agar, 2016). One, brief commentary on these videos is that the successful, long-term strategies used in iterative prisoner dilemma games are not unlike living a moral, virtuous life based on Stoic ethics.

Recurrence, to what end?

While applied ethics may be one reason to assume a long-term perspective, a related idea worth discussing would be the topic of ultimate ends for the individual. Geldard (2001) dedicates an entire chapter on telos and what we can learn from Heraclitus on this topic. This essay began by discussing philosophical and actual shipwrecks and how they are catalysts for change. The literal shipwreck must have been caused by one or many variables. Was the cause a faulty rudder, an incompetent navigator, or a lackadaisical captain, or were the elements – Nature – the sole causes of the ship crashing upon waves and rock? Were the captain and the crew completely helpless and only had God to blame for the crash? Once recovered on dry land or perhaps while drowning in the deep sea, they may have wondered: who’s in charge of all this or is it all chaos? What’s the purpose behind all this? Geldard contends that in Heraclitus’ perspective, there is “someone or something at the helm, which in turn implies a vessel with a rudder going somewhere” (p. 109, 2001). And with that implication, an aim for the individual could be found.

While Heraclitus does observe natural cycles and emphasizes constant change, he does not explicitly formulate a doctrine of recurrence or eternal return in the same way that later philosophers, like the Stoics and Nietzsche, do. However, there are a couple of gems found in Robinson (1991) and Sweet (2007) that indicate recurrence is a theme of Heraclitus and that with it, there is a heading to be found for the individual. Robinson quotes Aetius who wrote, “Heraclitus held that the recurrent fire is everlasting, and that destiny is a logos which fashions existent things through the contrariety of the directions in which they tend to run” (p. 173, 1991). Sweet, in his commentary on the themes of life, death, and the soul, discusses the dry and wet soul analogies of Heraclitus. He notes that Heraclitus proposes the soul gains power through wisdom and “becomes a dry soul” and “to the extent that it is identified with the universal fire” (p. 67, 2007). Furthermore, the truly wise person can attain such a degree of wisdom that their soul is unified with the universal fire and achieves a type of immortality. However, upon death, the wet or unwise soul turns to water and then earth and is merged into nature. While Sweet is not explicit, it could be assumed that the unwise person is reincarnated to try again, as it were.

Therefore, if it were assumed that flux is endless and recurrent and that individuals are tossed into the mix over and over again until they get it right and only when they become wise do they find an exit through unity with the universal fire, is this our answer to what our telos or aim in life is? One perspective Geldard brings into the analysis is that of Fowles. In this endless flux (what Fowles calls “The Situation”), “the only telos possible is an existential one” (p. 112, 2001). He quotes Fowles who writes, “To accept one’s limited freedom, to accept one’s isolation, to accept this responsibility, to learn one’s particular powers, and then with them to humanize the whole: that is the best … for this situation” (p. 112, 2001). In brief, one perspective is to simply accept existence as is. However, if this may seem distasteful, perhaps a more transcendental attitude of existence might invigorate life. Geldard offers the aim of unity with the Cosmos, or to be more precise, metaxy.

Fragment 10 focuses on the unity with the whole. “Seizures – wholes and non-wholes, being combined and differentiated, in accord and dissonant: unity is from everything and from everything is unity” (Sweet, 2007). Fragment 30 similarly notes, “this cosmos [the unity of all that is] was not made by immortal or mortal beings, but always was, is and will be an eternal fire, arising and subsiding in measure” (Geldard, p. 129, 2001). Geldard proposes that “the unity is the telos” of the human and that many texts from the same period of Heraclitus reflect this desire for transcendence away from the human existence Fowles describes and towards a metaxy or “in-betweenness” – a place between human existence and the Logos (p. 113-114, 2001). Geldard then reviews similarities between the teachings of the Old Testament prophet Jeremiah, the Buddha, and Lao Tse and the fragments of Heraclitus, all of which offer ideas for achieving unity.

Practice Again and Again

Since the individual finds himself in an endless flux that recurs, and his telos is to transcend into metaxy, what key lessons must he practice repeatedly to achieve his telos? Geldard notes similarities between Heraclitus and his peers of the time. The first is Jeremiah who calls the people, like a shepherd to his sheep, to “feed [on] knowledge and discretion” (p. 116, 2001). Geldard notes that this call to knowledge and discretion invokes a greater individual responsibility for people to come to God’s terms and perspective. In a similar vein, Heraclitus teaches that “to God all things are beautiful, good and just” (p. 116, 2001) and humans irresponsibly assume a narrow, closed-minded perspective. If we are to achieve our telos, we must practice abandoning our restricted point of view and practice embracing the perspective of the Cosmos.

Related to the practice of assuming a Cosmic attitude is the work of letting go of the ego and its related attachments and embracing the will of the Universe. Geldard references the Buddha’s doctrine of separating the selfish ego of one’s identity and in its place, assuming an identity equal to that of Divinity. When we cease being fearful of losing ourselves and cease the longing for fame and ego, we begin to break “the bonds of attachment” (p. 118, 2001). Heraclitus similarly admonishes in Fragment 2 that we must “obey the universal” and not be like common people who cling to their own “private understanding” (p. 119, 2001). To achieve our telos, we must practice relinquishing our selfish egos every day. Every flinch or snap judgment towards grasping at some portion of fame, or power or status should be met with practicing a desire to flow with Nature and being unified with the Nature of things.

Lastly, Lao Tse noted the tension of justice in the Universe by observing that tautness is needed for a bow to succeed. If there is no tension because the string is too long, then the string must be shortened and if there is not enough string, then it must be lengthened (see p. 120, 2001). A sage practices and demonstrates his knowledge rather than simply retaining it. True, divine understanding and judgment is not simple learning, but rather, being truly awake and aware and acting accordingly. To this end, Heraclitus teaches us to not heed him, but the Logos (Fragment 50) and that common humans do not have good judgment, but only divine judgment is good judgment (Fragment 78). Therefore, to achieve our telos, we must avoid the common and instead practice observing true wisdom. It will take skill to know when to apply a virtue and how much or how little for the right amount of tension.

Conclusion

The idea of a philosophical life beginning from a shipwreck is not novel. Many observers through the years have found the analogy quite compelling. Vidauskytė (2017) notes that not only is a shipwreck a metaphor for the initiation of a philosophical life, but that seafaring also signifies the human discontent with staying on land and the desire to transcend the human domain of land and venture out to the beyond. She rightly observes Diogenes Laertius commentary on Zeno of Citium, who survived a shipwreck and traded his lost cargo of purple dye for living a philosophical life on dry land. But not everyone’s fate is a shipwreck. Our character is defined by our fate, through the endless flux of impediments and obstacles. And sometimes, the monotony and recurring nature of existence forces us to wonder what our ultimate aim is. Perhaps after enough voyages and challenges, we arrive at true wisdom and begin to see the Cosmos as it really is – we lose our common ego and pivot to a desire to be at one with Nature. With enough practice of taking the Cosmic perspective, laying aside our ego, perhaps we achieve transcendence, return to land, and dry our soul by a flaming, wise fire.

References

Agar, J. (2014, October 4). The Prisoner’s Dilemma. Www.youtube.com. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t9Lo2fgxWHw&ab_channel=ThisPlace

Agar, J. (2016, July 2). The Iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma and The Evolution of Cooperation. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BOvAbjfJ0x0&ab_channel=ThisPlace 

Aurelius, M. (2014). Meditations (M. Hammond, Trans.). Penguin Classics, An Imprint Of Penguin Books.

Darabont, F. (Director). (1994, September 10). The Shawshank Redemption. Columbia Pictures.

Geldard, R. G. (2001). Remembering Heraclitus. Lindisfarne Books.

Long, A. A. (1986). Hellenistic philosophy : Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics. University Of California Press.

Robinson, T. M. (1991). Heraclitus : Fragments. University Toronto P.

Sweet, D. (2007). Heraclitus : Translation and Analysis. University Press of America.

Vidauskytė, L. (2017). Metaphor of Existence: Seafaring and Shipwreck. [Egzistencijos metafora: kelionė jūra ir laivo nuskendimas] Filosifija Sociologija., 28(1), 11-19.

Phil 417 - Personal Identity

 Questions on Personal Identity

In our modern society, many transactions are based on an individual’s identity. To apply for a car loan, one must provide a social security number, date of birth, mailing address, and other bits of data, all to indicate the identity of a person. Unfortunately, a person’s identity could be stolen and while the actual person would not open a credit line at the local Best Buy, someone else with that data actually could and could commit theft. As frustrating as this can be to a person, other people suffer from a different identity crisis in the form of dissociative identity disorder (DID), which is defined as a person whose identity is disrupted by “two or more distinct personality states” (American Psychiatric Association, 2022, p. 330). One of the most vivid examples of someone who experienced DID was Chris Sizemore, who possessed over twenty different personalities throughout her life (Costner Sizemore & Huber, 1988). These personalities were so fundamentally different from each other that they had differing IQs, tastes, mannerisms, memories, and even religions. After resolving these personalities into a unified self, in a question-and-answer session she said of herself, “On an intellectual level, I am fully aware that I am all of these personalities and that they are me, but on an emotional level, it is as though 22 women used my body for a period of 40 years” (p 59).

What are we to make of these examples of identity? When each of us is asked the question, “Who are you?” how are we to respond? On what basis can we answer such a seemingly basic question, when we are confronted with bewildering examples of people who suffer from mental disorders such as DID? Is our identity related to our body, our memories, our experiences, our survival, or other things? While there are many theories on personal identity, this paper will only review a handful: physical persistence, psychological continuity, and what ultimately matters (Olsen, 2002). After reviewing a few theories, I’ll discuss my opinions on the subject and conclude that there may not be a problem or definition of personal identity, but rather the idea of a personal identity does not exist, or at the very least, there is no simple, straight-forward essence of personal identity.

Physical Persistence

Perhaps the simplest theory of personal identity is to plainly state a person is their body. Certainly, a person is conceived, grouped as cells into an organism, is born and continues to grow and evolve, and then dies. As long as the body is viable, the person’s identity is tied to that body until death, upon which the identity ceases to exist as well. A. J. Ayer asserts this point in his book Language, Truth and Logic (2001), by contending a person may survive a loss of memory or even experience a change in character and survive as the same person, but if he were to lose his body to death, it would be a contradiction to state he survived his death. In sum, Ayer and others who hold to the physical persistence theory of personal identity would state that the defining, consistent feature of a person’s identity is the body. Ayer would state that Chris Sizemore is not multiple identities, but one.

However, while Ayer states that surviving one’s death is contradictory, there is some evidence supporting the claim that an identity does survive a bodily death. Since many have discounted the idea of reincarnation, one doctor decided to apply strict scientific methods to determine the validity of claims of an identity surviving death. Through the course of his lifetime and career, Dr. Ian Stevenson racked up roughly 3000 detailed cases of people who possessed evidence that they had lived a previous life and thus survived death (Bering, 2013). His most detailed work is captured in his book describing cases and analyses of children who make claims of living a previous life (Stevenson, 2016). The common theme in many of these cases is that an identity of a person indeed survives death and lives on in another body. While there is no explanation for how this is possible, there is evidence it does occur.

Psychological Continuity

Another theory of personal identity relates to a person’s ability to retain a memory from moment to moment. As a person is born, grows and experiences life, assuming they have a working memory, they collect sensual and mental states of mind. And while a person’s environment and circumstances and judgements change from moment to moment, there is a causal link between their mental states, such that they are able to have a continuous psychological identity (Olsen, 2002).

To make this theory even clearer, Sydney Shoemaker (2004) proposed a thought experiment in which two people, named Brown and Robinson, underwent operations for brain tumor removals, in which the entire brain of each patient had to be removed from the skull. However, when the time came to re-insert the patients’ brains, by a procedural error, Brown’s brain was placed in Robinson’s skull. The resulting person was dubbed Brownson and retained all of Brown’s memories and mental, psychological states. Upon waking from the surgery, Brown would continue to be Brown. As long as there remains a causal link from one moment to the next, the personal identity of an individual is retained.

Olsen (2002) wonders if personal identity is retained if this thought experiment were slightly changed. Instead of moving the physical brain plus its contents from one skull to another, what if only the mental contents of person 1 were copied, like bits of data, into the brain of person 2 and the original mental contents of person 2 were erased - would this retain the qualifications of psychological continuity? The neural links and aspects of the physical brain would be the same from one moment to the next, but only the mental contents would be different. Interestingly, Olsen notes that some psychological continuity theorists say yes, while others say no. This gray area in the psychological continuity theory leads to a related concern for personal identity: personal survival.

What Matters

One dissertation took a deeper dive into personal identity by reviewing Derek Parfit’s work on this topic. Gromak (2015) summarizes Parfit’s theory by stating identity is not what truly matters, but rather what the individual deeply and ultimately cares about is what matters. More specifically, while Parfit’s theory states that identity does matter to some extent, what genuinely matters for an individual is psychological continuity and connectedness (p. 100). In other words, an individual’s ultimate concern is to simply persist and continue in some form or fashion.

Gromak covers many variations of thought experiments in his paper, but there is one that seems to grasp the subtle nuance of the matter regarding a choice an individual could make about remaining a specific identity or persisting in some form or fashion. A person steps into a machine, pushes a button, after which the machine scans him and creates a replica. During the process, the original person’s heart is damaged and will die in a few days, while the replica version lives. Gromak further elaborates on this thought experiment by changing one factor: the original person will live for 10 years, while the replica version will live for 11 years. In this case, Gromak contends the rational choice is to not push the button and remain as that identity, but Parfit would contend the rational choice is to push the button, die after 10 years, and persist in the replica for an additional year, thus placing emphasis on what truly matters: survival.

Discussion on Personal Identity

Besides those reviewed in this essay, there are many other questions and possible answers surrounding personal identity. As such, I do not think personal identity can be reduced to one or a few factors such as physical persistence or some aspect of psychological continuity. It seems as if every attempt to define personal identity is met with some challenge and therefore perhaps personal identity is undefinable, or perhaps “there are no philosophical problems about identity” (Noonan & Curtis, 2004). An individual person is not an island. He is born into a network, community and social structure. Most people live in an interconnected society and complex ecosystem. To attempt to define the essence of a personal identity is to ignore hundreds, if not thousands of other variables which could define who a person is. While not in the analytical philosophical realm, Buddhism goes so far as to state there is no self and no identity (see section on Non-Self in Siderits, 2011).

If I were to attempt some definition of personal identity, I would argue that every human being is unique and connected with others and his environment at the same time. The thousands of variables that constitute an identity of a person would not be the same from one identity to another. For example, the physical persistence and/or a causal link of psychological continuity of a person could apply and be one or two of the variables in defining personal identity, or not. I would even contend there could be overlapping factors of identities which could account for multiple personalities and reincarnation, which further underscores that personal identity is difficult to reduce to one or two factors.

In sum, while the physical persistence and psychological continuity explanations have merit, I don’t think either one adequately explains any essence of personal identity. I tend to lean towards the concept of a person simply being a part of a whole, not dissimilar to how an aspen tree is a part of a grove; and even that analogy is somewhat inadequate.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this essay briefly reviewed three considerations regarding personal identity: physical persistence, psychological continuity, and the idea that what truly matters is not personal identity, but that a person persists in some form or fashion. While I find these ideas useful in exploring the topic, I lean towards the idea that there is no philosophical problem to solve with personal identity, and if there could be an answer, no definitive, single essence of personal identity could be denoted. 

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, text revision DSM-5-TR. (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association

Ayer, A. J. (2001). Language, Truth And Logic. (eBook). Penguin Books. (Original work published 1936)

Bering, J. (2013, November 2). Ian Stevenson’s Case for the Afterlife: Are We “Skeptics” Really Just Cynics? Scientific American Blog Network. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/bering-in-mind/ian-stevensone28099s-case-for-the-afterlife-are-we-e28098skepticse28099-really-just-cynics/ 

Costner Sizemore, C., & Huber, R. J. (1988). The Twenty-Two Faces of Eve. Individual Psychology, 44(1), 53-.

Gromak, J. A. (2015). Personal identity, survival and what matters. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Olson, E. T. (2002, August 20). Personal Identity (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Stanford.edu. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/identity-personal/

Noonan, H., & Curtis, B. (2004, December 15). Identity (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Stanford.edu. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/identity/  

Shoemaker, S. (2004). Brown-Brownson Revisited. The Monist, 87(4), 573–593. https://doi.org/10.5840/monist200487429

Siderits, M. (2011). Buddha (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Stanford.edu. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/buddha/ 

Stevenson, I. (2016). Children Who Remember Previous Lives. McFarland.

Phil 417 - The Metaphysics of Time

Questions on the Ontology of Time

Henry Molaison suffered seizures from his youth until his twenties. In an attempt to cure him of the worsening seizures, his parents took him to numerous doctors, including a neurosurgeon named William Scoville. At the age of 27, Henry underwent an experimental operation to remove parts of his brain. His seizures significantly decreased in temperament and frequency, but at a high cost – he lost the ability to recall and would be stuck in the present moment for the rest of his life (Corkin, 2013). To ponder what it must be like to have no ability to recall would be to ponder what life might be like if one had no concept of time. While Henry would physically change, to him, his life experience would be perpetually stuck in the present moment. For the average person, however, the ability to remember allows her to seemingly experience time and with it the perception that it flows and passes.

Philosophical conversation on time has existed as long as the dialogue of philosophy itself. Some have argued that time flows, while others argue it is a static structure and is not real. Questions relating to the ontology of time are: does it flow, or does it follow some other construct? Do things exist only in the present or can they exist in the future and past? Many philosophers have pondered these questions and have advanced theories to explain time. This paper will review and explain the earliest debates on these questions between Heraclitus and Parmenides to show the long-standing nature of this examination (Bardon & Dyke (Eds.), 2013).  It will then review modern perceptions of time concerning A-Theory and B-Theory as explained by J.M.E McTaggart and how these ideas relate to the ideas of Presentism, Growing Block Theory and Moving Spotlight Theory (A-Theories) and Eternalism (B-Theory) (Markosian, 2002 and Bardon & Dyke (Eds.), 2013).

Ancient Discussions on Time

Heraclitus

Flux is a Heraclitan idea. One of his fragments claims all existence is in a constant state of change and that a person cannot step in the same river twice (Graham, 2019). At first glance, the idea of not being able to step into the same river twice is confusing. When a person steps into a stream of water in the morning while on a hike, and then crosses that same stream again, in his mind, he is stepping into the same thing. However, Heraclitus is being more specific in saying that the creek and the water molecules and the way the water flows and the minerals the water molecules have acquired (Bardon & Dyke (Eds.), 2013) – all of those features of the creek have changed between the first time the hiker stepped in it and the second time he crossed it. Precisely speaking, the creek is not the same from one moment to the next.

With this focus on flux and constant change, Heraclitus further noticed that despite the perpetual variation, things seemingly remained constant through cycles. However, he is unambiguous in noting that things do change from one moment to the next and this marking of change denotes time passed. Stated differently, Heraclitus noted the flux of everything both is and is not. This flux of things, if observed long enough, turns out to be opposites: day and night, winter and summer, war and peace, and satiety and hunger (2013, p. 13). In brief, Heraclitus would claim what was past existed and was real, and it changes to the present which also exists and is real and eventually things change again and still be real.

Parmenides

Parmenides took a different tact regarding the explanation of reality and refused to embrace the idea of flux – that existence both is and is not. Rather, he believed that everything just is. He explained this by way of a poem, in which a mortal meets a goddess, and she explains to the mortal the way of truth. She explains that there is one route called “it is” and there is another route called “it is not” and there is even a third route called “it is, and it is not” (2013, p. 17). The second and third routes are dead ends, and there is only one route: it is. This reality of existence does not change, for change is simply the mortal’s perspective. Furthermore, how can something which exists, not exist? This is contradictory and mortals are “deaf and blind at once” (Palmer, 2016) for not admitting and comprehending this contradiction. Parmenides simply concludes there is no flux, but everything simply exists and is the One. To Parmenides, Heraclitus would have been on the second route and his ideas would be contradictory. And since flux does not exist, the passage of time also does not exist and therefore time does not exist – it is simply human misunderstanding.

The philosophical discourse between Heraclitus and Parmenides continues to this day. The manner of looking at reality and time splits into differing factions of thought.

Modern Discussions on Time

Many theories regarding the metaphysics of time fall under two camps: A-Theory and B-Theory. These two theories stem from the philosopher J.M.E. McTaggart who noted two types of series in time and then argued that time does not exist (McDaniel, 2009). In one series, events can be ordered earlier than or later than one event in relation to another; he called these B-series. He also described a second series of events in which one event is noted as the present moment, and this event changes, first by being future, then being present, then being past, as it moves position in a series; he called these events the A-series.

From these two types of series emerge notions of A-Theory and B-Theory. In brief, A-Theory ideas contend time is real, especially the present moment, and that all time is viewed as either past, present, or future. (Bardon & Dyke (Eds.), 2013). However, B-Theory ideas argue that time is not real and that events simply have relations that are either earlier-than or later-than (2013). In a review of the theories of time, one podcaster explained the key difference between the two theories as being the determination of the present either being real (A-Theory) or the present not being real (B-Theory) (Macherla). Also, while A-Theory is committed to the idea of time being linear or growing, B-Theory contends there is simply existence and things only occupy a particular space-time coordinate.

A-Theories: Presentism, Growing Block, and Moving Spotlight

Most peoples’ paradigm of time aligns with A-Theory ideas. Three of these theories are Presentism, Growing Block, and Moving Spotlight. Before describing each one, it may be helpful to frame the idea of time as a block of cheese, and the present moment is represented as a slice of cheese from the block.

In the theory of Presentism, the only thing that is real is the present, viewed as a slice of cheese. Whatever exists now is real, but nothing in the past or future is considered real and therefore, the past and the future do not exist (Markosian, 2002). A comprehensive list of things that exist in the present moment could be produced, but nothing from the past, such as dinosaurs, or nothing from the future, such as a time machine, would be on that list of things in the present, therefore dinosaurs and time machines do not exist and are not real.

In the Growing Block theory, only the past and the present are real, but the future does not exist (2002). An observer might strongly contend that things in the past were just as real as the present. Therefore, time is like a growing block of cheese, where the present moment is the slice of cheese that grows and acts as the edge of time. The future, however, is beyond the block and does not exist.

Lastly is the Moving Spotlight theory, named by C.D. Broad (2002), contends that all past, present, and future are real, but differs from the B-Theory in contending that time exists, and the present is not only real, but also unique since there is a metaphorical light on the present moment. This light constantly moves and illuminates the present, hence there is a sense of flow. All time is laid out, but light only shines on the present moment.

B-Theory: Eternalism

Continuing with the block of cheese example for explaining time, the B-Theory of Eternalism contends that all moments in time equally exist and that the past, present, and future are not real (2002), and all that exists is the block of cheese. The universe simply exists in all time and space, and things only occupy some space-time coordinate. Indeed, things may serially exist before another thing much like page 7 exists at a space-time coordinate which simply precedes page 8 which exists at an adjacent space-time coordinate, but all pages equally exist – there is nothing unique about page 7.

Discussion on Time

While I find the practical nature of time useful, such as being prompt to a meeting or having the ability to recall the anniversary date of my marriage, nevertheless, it is odd that we spend a lot of thought on this subject. By way of relation, I wonder why we don’t spend as much effort on discussing the nature of a kilometer, meter, or centimeter. After all, isn’t time simply an attempt at keeping the score on a change?

After having the opportunity to research and write this essay, I realize I fall in the B-Theory camp and align my views with those of Spinoza. In reviewing Spinoza’s ideas on the metaphysics of time, Waller (2012) offers a clear analogy to explain why the B-Theory makes better sense. Suppose Bob completes the paperwork for a loan at 10:30am and then signs the loan at 10:31am and shakes the hand of the loan officer. However, at 10:35am when Bob receives the loan check, he claims he is not the same Bob who signed the form – that Bob is past Bob, while this Bob is present Bob. This way of thinking is incoherent!  Bob is Bob whether in the past, present, or future. To return to the block of cheese analogy, indeed slices do exist (Bob being a different slice at different times), but a clearer way of comprehending the entirety of the idea is to admit all the slices are the same cheese.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the age-old philosophical discourse on time centers around whether it flows or is static. From Heraclitus and Parmenides to moderns such as McTaggart and Broad, this debate continues today under A-Theory and B-Theory ideas. A-Theory ideas claim time is real to varying degrees, but B-Theory ideas claim time is not real and that there is only existence.

References

Bardon, A., & Dyke, H. (Eds.). (2013). A companion to the philosophy of time. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.

Corkin, S. (2013). Permanent present tense: The unforgettable life of the amnesic patient, h. m.. Basic Books.

Graham, D. W. (2019, September 3). Heraclitus (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Stanford.edu. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/heraclitus/ 

Markosian, N. (2002, November 25). Time (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Stanford.edu. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/time/

Macherla, R. (2021, March 21). Philosophy of Time. In The Human Condition. Spotify for Podcasters. https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/the-human-condition0/episodes/Philosophy-of-Time-e1cm8qr/a-a77506j

McDaniel, K. (2009). John M. E. McTaggart (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Stanford.edu. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mctaggart/ 

Palmer, J. (2016). Parmenides (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Stanford.edu. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/parmenides/ 

Waller, J. (2012). Persistence through time in Spinoza. Lexington Books/Fortress Academic.