Notes and What I Learned From: Philosophy as a Way of Life - the essay "The Figure of Socrates"

While working on the podcast episodes of my book review of Pierre Hadot's Philosophy as a Way of Life, I discovered there were a few essays I did not review back in 2019.  So, I've re-read them and now am posting some thoughts and commentary on them.

"The Figure of Socrates" is Hadot's reflections on how we can put in practice the exercise of contemplating the sage. He asserts that Socrates can be studied and contemplated in three ways. First as a Silenus and as a mediator between the divine and the human condition, second as Eros and the different ways Socrates seduced, loved and was beloved, and thirdly, as Dionysos ("god of death and of life" p. 169) in which we learn how the sage loves life so much (i.e. has thought so deeply on it), he is willing to die to show it!

Silenus

Socrates was physically ugly, thus superficially, he was compared to a Silenus. These were "purely natural beings. They stood for the negation of culture and civilization, for grotesque buffoonery and for the license of the instincts" (Hadot, 149). But upon further reflection, we learn there is something far more important hidden beneath the lurid facade. Alcibiades compares Socrates to statues of Sileni which were not only ugly on the outside, but within were hidden mini figures of gods. Indeed, the symbolism is rich when thinking of the many times Marcus Aurelius, Epictetus and Seneca reference the divinity within ourselves!

Therefore, as we learn of the distasteful appearance of Socrates, we can contemplate how it is simply a mask he wears. If we can look past his outward appearance and even his method, we find we have much to learn. In brief, both his superficial appearance and his method act as masks which cover the deeper lessons he taught. This concept is known as Socratic irony. In other words, he may claim he knows nothing, but in so claiming and appearing ignorant, the line of questioning reveals he knows more than he lets on. Practically speaking, this attitude of playing the fool is often used to great effect in school and work. By assuming the role of 'the ignorant' one opens himself to being willing to learn and take a fresh perspective on things and processes.

We still benefit from Socrates' mask, as we read Plato and others who themselves don the Socratic mask. As we step into their words, our consciousness is sharpened as we near philosophical conversion. Others, through the age, have also donned the masks of others, in an attempt to teach their readers. Kierkegaard used pseudonyms and Nietzsche used the masks of Schopenhauer and Wagner (Hadot, 150-151). In fact, Nietzsche wrote, "An educator never says what he himself thinks, but always only what he thinks of a thing in relation to the requirements of those he educates" (151). Indeed, Socrates used self-deprecation and superficiality, and often pretended to concede others were correct, all in an effort to help the birth the idea simmering in the students' minds. As Nietzsche said, "Mediocrity is the most appropriate mask the superior spirit can wear" (152). On this quote, I'm reminded of Bill's point about Superman (from the film Kill Bill: Volume 2).

 

Through question and answer, Socrates became the midwife of knowledge. By birthing these ideas and concepts, and getting them out in the open, we free the purely conceptual idea from a prison of thought, and release it into the open to be lived and examined. "What he wanted to show us is that we can never understand justice if we do not live it. Justice, like every authentic reality, is indefinable, and this is what Socrates sought to make his interlocutor understand, in order to urge him to 'live' justice" (Hadot, 155). Socrates explicitly noted his aim: "trying to persuade each of you to concern himself less about what he has [than] about what he is, so that he may make himself as good and as reasonable as possible" (155). 

Another point related to this and the masks Socrates bore, is that in a sense, he descended to where man exists and thinks, and by assuming an ironic and mediocre stance, he was able to connect with those who listened and talked with him, to bring them to a higher state. Nietzsche wrote, "I believe I sense that Socrates was profound; his irony was above all the necessity to pass himself off as superficial, in order to be able to associate with people at all." Hadot continues, "for the existential thinker, banality and superficiality are a vital necessity. The existentialist must remain in contact with mankind, even if the latter is at a level of less-than-adequate consciousness" (156). 

Eros

Socrates as Eros is similar to the Silenus, in that the 'the mask' Socrates dons is that of a lover. This love is an educative love, where he pretends to be in love with one of his listeners but in fact the roles become eventually are reversed. Hadot provides the example of Alcibiades, who believed the love declarations from Socrates, but in fact, they were mere declarative seductions. Upon realizing this, Alcibiades finds himself deeply in love with Socrates. Later on, Hadot notes that Socrates' interlocuters actually fell in love with love itself - "to be in love with Socrates, then, was to be in love with love (160).

The entirety of the Symposium is dedicated to the discussion and praise of love. If we observe the description of love from Socrates' perspective (via Diotima), we learn Eros was the child of Penia ("poverty" or "privation") and Poros ("means" or "expedient" or "wealth"). Penia, seeing that she lacked so much, decided to lay with Poros as a way to escape her indigence. Eros, therefore, acquires features from both parents. While Eros may be "clever" and "inventive" he nonetheless remains impoverished and will always want and desire. And on this point, Hadot observes how "Eros is essentially desire, and the only thing that can be desired is that which one does not have" (161). Later we read other traits of Eros: he is a beggar, soldier, inventor, sorcerer, magician, and a clever talker - ever in pursuit of what he desires. In sum, Eros represents "merely a call and a possibility" and like the Silenus statue, which contains a figurine of a god within, "they only open up so that one can get at them. The etymological meaning of Poros, Eros' father, is 'means of access' or 'way out.' Socrates is only a Silenius, opening up onto something beyond himself" (162) and we, along with his listeners, become conscious of something we lack: wisdom.

Hadot later summarizes this aspect of the spiritual exercise of the contemplation of the sage, in the form of Eros. He does so via Nietzsche, Goethe and Holderlin.

• Nietzsche: "The deepest insights spring from love alone."
• Goethe: "We learn only from those we love."
• Holderlin: "Mortal man gives his best when he loves."

Dionysos

We also see the sage Socrates in Dionysos, who was the god of tragedy and comedy, as well as the god of life and death (169).  Hadot channels Nietzche in asking how Socrates, who seemed to love life so much, could be so willing to submit to death and even possibly hating existence? (167). We begin the detective work by simply observing how the sage loves life, as Nietzsche wrote, "they have thought most deeply, must love what is most living and, as sages, incline in the end to the beautiful." Even more guffawing to Nietzsche is the observation of Socrates suggesting a debt be paid to Asclepius, who has found the antidote to the disease of life: death! But alas, perhaps he misunderstood. Socrates did not think life was a disease, but rather he may felt that a certain way of life was: the life left unexamined.

An examined life - one that is contemplated and tested most deeply - becomes a life worth living and one that is rich, flowing and sustaining. Hadot recalls an "old medieval encomium of the Holy Ghost" that aptly describes the benefits of an examined life: flecte quod est rigidum, fove quod est frigidum, rege quod est devium" which is translated as 'bend what is rigid, warm what is cold, guide what has gone astray.' And what an apt description of the aim of making life livable!

Hadot concludes the essay with "Nietzsche's encomium"

The genius of the heart, as that great concealed one possesses it, the tempter god and born pied piper of consciences, whose voice knows how to descend into the netherworld of every soul; who does not say a word or cast a glance in which there lies no secret goal of seduction ... the genius of the heart who silences all that is loud and self-satisfied, teaching it to listen; who smooths rough souls and lets them taste a new desire - to lie still as a mirror, that the deep sky may mirror itself in them ... the genius of the heart from whose touch everyone walks away richer, not having received grace and surprised, not as blessed and oppressed by alien goods, but richer in himself, newer to himself than before, broken open and sounded by a thawing wind; more uncertain, perhaps; tenderer, more fragile, more broken, but full of hopes that as yet have no name.

Ways to Practice

That concludes my review of Hadot's essay on "The Figure of Socrates." After reading the essay and writing this commentary, I thought of a few ways for how you and I can be more thoughtful in how to implement some exercises as we contemplate the Socratic sage.

Perhaps the most obvious way is to assume the Socratic mask, by practicing humility and irony. For example, we could regularly approach conversations and learning opportunities by “playing the fool." In this humble attitude, we position ourselves to ask questions, and be willing to admit ignorance. This opens us to genuine learning and helps others feel comfortable in sharing their perspectives. Sometimes a bit of self-deprecation can reduce friction and help open dialogue and learning.

Another way to put these ideas into practice is to embody our values. We should try to focus less on what we possess and more on who we are. We should make a daily practice of reflecting on our actions and choices, asking ourselves if they align with our values and ideals.

We can also learn through friendships and relationships and with those we work. Often others exhibit behaviors and possess knowledge of what we lack. This desire and love to learn mindset could be exhibited in relationships with mentors, friends, and colleagues - virtually anyone who inspires us to grow. Recognize that deep learning often springs from affection and admiration. In these interactions and conversations we can allow ourselves to be changed by them. We should be open to falling “in love with love”—that is, with the process of learning and growing through connection.

Additionally we can embrace the examined life through reflection, question and transformation. This is not simple daily reflection, but rather a deeper exercise in taking a step back and looking more cosmically. We could question our beliefs, test our assumptions, and strive to “bend what is rigid, warm what is cold, guide what has gone astray.” Practically speaking, after a particularly challenging time in life, we could could ask ourselves: What did I learn? Where did I change? What remains unexamined? Then, we can use these reflections to guide our future actions and decisions.

We also can practice greater and deeper acceptance of life’s paradoxes, by balancing joy and acceptance of our mortality. We can think about what brings joy in our life and contrast that with the limits of existence. Recognize that loving life deeply also means accepting its end, and that a life left unexamined is the true “disease.” Practically speaking, gratitude and acceptance of and meditation on the beauty of life and the inevitability of death, helps us to live more fully and authentically.

Lastly, we can be a midwife of ideas both for ourselves and others. In our own teaching, mentoring, or leadership, we can focus on helping others “birth” their own ideas. We can use questions and dialogue to guide rather than dictate. For example, when someone seeks advice, resist the urge to give direct answers. Instead, ask probing questions that help them clarify their own thinking and arrive at insights themselves.

Reference

Hadot, P. (2017). Philosophy as a Way of Life : Spiritual Exercises from Socrates to Foucault (M. Chase, Trans.). Blackwell Publishing.

On 'We Need Jesus to Return'

Introduction

It is an annual tradition in our home to celebrate Halloween by watching It’s the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown (Melendez, 1966). In this cute story, Linus believes the Great Pumpkin will visit him on Halloween, if he only believes it will come. Linus manages to dupe Sally into his delusion and they both are ridiculed by Lucy and the others who go trick-or-treating. Of course the Great Pumpkin does not come and Sally catches on pretty quickly that she has missed out on all the candy. Linus passes out after he thinks he sees the Great Pumpkin, when in fact it was just Snoopy. Linus' responsible sister, not only got candy for him while she was trick-or-treating, but she also woke up in the middle of the night, retrieved him from the pumpkin patch, brought him safely home and tucked him into bed.

Human history is fraught with people predicting some event, only to be proven incorrect. While some predictions may have low stakes involved, others pull many people into their orbit and can be the catalyst for the start of a new religion or movement. Most of the time, people who believe in an imminent second coming of Christ are dismissed as fringe cultists, while the majority of Christians seem to believe it is inevitable, but perhaps only in the distant future.

In this essay, I'll briefly review and summarize the many failed Second Coming predictions during the last several hundred years, after which I'll discuss how Mormonism approached the subject and more specifically how I personally experienced this subject for the last 30 years. And in contrast to how I was taught about perceiving and discussing the Second Coming, I will review a few anecdotal experiences I've observed in the last few years, and the increase in the number of instances I've observed of close relatives invoking God in prayer to send his son again to earth. Then I will offer a few thoughts on why people would want Christ to come again, and how this desire seemingly abdicates personal responsibility, agency and can even be viewed as breaking the first great commandment (Matthew 22:37).

The Increasing Number of Failed Predictions

The history of the Second Coming of Jesus is marked by a substantial number of failed predictions spanning nearly two millennia. While it's impossible to give a precise, definitive total, the number of publicly documented, notable failed predictions, or periods of intense expectation, is well over a hundred—with some lists containing over 200 different claims.

These predictions have consistently failed because the predicted date or event passed without the physical, visible return of Christ as expected by the claimants. In response, followers often experience what is known as the Great Disappointment, or the claimants simply recalculate the date or reinterpret the prophecy.

The following is a timeline summary of some of the most prominent failed Second Coming and Millennial predictions, grouped by historical periods (Wikipedia Contributors, 2025).

In the early Church and Middle Ages, between the years 500 and 1492, there were many predictions of Christ's return, with most of those focused on significant numerical milestones, biblical numerology, or political events. For example, Hippolytus of Rome, Sextus Julius Africanus, and Irenaeus predicted Christ would return 6000 years after the world was created. This pegged the year at 500 CE. But Christ did not return that year.

The next significant year would be 1000, when various Christians, including Pope Sylvester II, figured Christ would return one millennium after his birth. When Christ did not return that year, they moved the date to 1033, based on the fact this would be 1000 years after his death.  But Christ did not return then either.

Next in this period are a few Christian mystics who predicted 1200–1260, 1290, and 1335 as years Christ would return. When these years passed without fanfare, they too moved the dates to later years, which also passed without event. During this same period, Pope Innocent III assumed Christ would return 666 years after the rise of Islam, in the year 1284, but there was no Second Coming that year either.

Lastly various Russian Orthodox Christians using the Byzantine calendar, believed 1492 to be the end of the seventh millennium since the creation of the world, which they took as a sign of the world's end and the Second Coming. This belief was so strong the Russian Orthodox Church temporarily stopped calculating the date of Easter beyond 1491. But the only significant event that year was Columbus sailing the ocean blue.

During the Reformation and Early Modern Era between the years 1500 and 1840, the history shows new predictions of the second coming were often tied to celestial events, religious and political upheaval, and increasingly specific numerical calculations. The astrologer Johannes Stöffler observed planetary alignment in Pisces (a water sign) as a sign of a great flood and the Millennium and predicted the coming of Christ on February 20, 1524. There was no flood and no visitation from Christ on that day. A German mathematician named Michael Stifel figured Judgement Day would be on October 19, 1533, but that date too passed without fanfare or judgement.

Then a number of people (William Aspinwall, Johann Jacob Zimmermann, John Mason, and Henry Archer) foresaw Christ's return in 1673, 1694 and 1700, based on their readings of the Book of Daniel and the Book of Revelation. None of those years heralded Jesus' return. Lastly, Joanna Southcott made the remarkable claim she was carrying the Christ child and that he would be born on December 25, 1814. However, no babe from her womb was born that day and in fact, Southcott died on Christmas day of 1814. An autopsy would prove that she was never carrying a child.

From 1840 onward, the world has seen a significant uptick in increasingly complex, and repeatedly revised predictions of Christ's return. This era of failed prognostications could be divided into The Great Advent Movement and then the Modern Times period.

William Miller and the Millerites tried to wrest knowledge from the Bible and the Book of Daniel to establish the specific date of October 22, 1844. However, they experienced the "Great Disappointment" which led to a fracturing of the group, including the creation of the Seventh-day Adventists. A number of other less well-known diviners such as George Rapp, Joseph Morris, John Wroe, Charles Taze Russell, and a Piute Indian named Wovoka claimed Christ would visit Earth again in 1847, 1861, 1863, 1874 and 1890. One creative way in which Charles Taze Russell managed his failed prediction was to claim that Christ indeed returned, but was invisible.

Then there is the Mormon prophet Joseph Smith and his followers. In 1835, Smith prophesied to the twelve Mormon apostles that "the coming of the Lord, which was nigh - even fifty-six years should wind up the scene," which translates into the year 1891 (Smith, J., & The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 2022). Eight years later, Smith received another revelation from in which he was told by God that if he lived to be eighty-five years old, Christ would appear again (Smith, J., & The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, n.d.). This would have put the date at 1890. Regardless the imprecision, both 1890 and 1891 passed with not even a hem of Jesus appearing on Earth.

Many followers of Smith received their Patriarchal blessings, including my own grandmother, in which it was stated they would live to see the second coming of Christ. My grandmother was born in 1917 and died in 2004.  Her blessing said, "thy life shall be prolonged and thou shalt be permitted to see Zion redeemed and of seeing and assisting in the building of the Temple in the Central Stake of Zion, where the Lord will come in His glory and thou shalt be permitted to assist in the great work under the personal supervision of the Savior and shall be satisfied with thy life's work."

In 1831, the Catholic Apostolic Church predicted Christ would return after the last of the 12 founding apostles of its church died. The last Apostle died in 1901, but Christ did not return that year. The Jehovah's Witnesses church believes Christ has invisibly returned in 1914. In the following year in 1915, John Chilembwe who was a Baptist educator, believed the 1000 year period of peace, known as the Millennium, would begin. This epoch of peace has largely been associated with the return of the Christ. Herbert Armstrong made several failed, revised and failed again predictions in the latter half of the 20th century. And a sect within the Seventh-day Adventist believed Christ would return in 1964. Benjamin Creme went with the precise date of Monday, June 21, 1982 as Christ's return. But when he did not return, Creme fell back on the excuse that the world was not ready for his return.

Then there was Edgar C. Whisenant, who was a former NASA engineer who published "88 Reasons Why The Rapture Will Be in 1988." When he was proven wrong, he tried again with another publication called "The Final Shout: Rapture Report 1989" which also proved inaccurate, so he tried one more time with predicting the return of Christ in 1993 with updated calculations but Christ did not return that year either.

The Nelson Megalomania

I could go on. There are at least 16 more instances of failed predictions documented between the years of 1994 and 2025. And this brings me to the reason why I'm writing this blog post. In 2024 and 2025, my wife and I began to notice subtle expressions, every so often, of a soft plea of prayer from friends and family for Christ's return. Every bit of perceived misfortune would be acknowledged with a sigh of "we need Jesus to return."

At first, we thought it was a bit odd and we didn't understand why these expressions were increasing. In our formative years, it seemed the Mormon church had learned its lesson of going out on a limb by predicting and talking frequently of Christ's return, only to be proven wrong with failed predictions. The prevailing doctrine (somewhat strictly enforced by leadership) was to declare no one except God the Father, knew when Christ would return. This doctrine and policy kept the fringe believers away from speculation, and prevented further splintering of the church. However, if there were going to be any signs of Christ's return, one generally accepted sign of Christ's imminent return would be two witnesses or perhaps apostles, being killed in Jerusalem, and their bodies would lay in the street for 3 1/2 days before being resurrected for entire world to witness. If I recall, this prophecy is based on Revelation 11. But alas, these days, there are no witnesses or apostles in Jerusalem in 2025.

So, why this change from not talking about Christ's return to infrequent sighs and moans calling for his return? My theory is that the recent president of the Mormon church, Russell Nelson began talking it up more during his tenure. It seems to have begun in October 2018, after Nelson emphasized the need to use Christ's name when referencing the church, as opposed to common designations, such as the Mormon church. In this sermon, he notes the Mormon church's purpose of preparing the world for the Second Coming of Christ. Also, he placed a lot of emphasis on the 200th anniversary of Joseph Smith's first vision, which would be celebrated in 2020. Of course, this anniversary, coupled with the global pandemic might have further spurred speculation of a Messianic return.

Recent history shows that in the 2012 church general conferences, the topic of the Second Coming was not referenced a single time. And between the years of 2013 and 2017, it was referenced no more than five times each year. And this trend was fairly average for all church general conferences between 1982 and 2017. But with the beginning of Nelson's October 2018 sermon, the topic of the Second Coming began to be referred to many times. In fact, the 5 year rolling average indicates that the topic of the Second Coming in the Mormon general conferences has been the highest in 50 years, aligned with the calling of Russell Nelson as president of the church (General Conference Analytics, 2025).

With Nelson's opening 'Second Coming' salvo, many other speakers began to follow suit and began talking 'Second Coming preparation.' One solid example is Renlund (2025) exhorting members to personally prepare to meet Jesus. He cites Nelson and scriptures in an effort to help people feel prepared for the return of Christ. Interestingly, in his sermon he advises members to be wary of "pretenders [who] would try to deceive the very elect and that many disciples would be duped. We should neither believe those who falsely claim divine sanction nor venture into metaphorical deserts or secret chambers to be taught by counterfeits" (2025). The irony of this admonition is rich coming from a leader of a church that is worth north of $200 billion (Semerad, 2025). It is no small fact that the church has tried to hide and even deceive its own members of the vast amount of wealth it possesses, despite Christ's explicit admonition that man (or church) cannot serve both God and Mammon (Matthew, 6:24).

You have the resources to deal with that which has been given you

As I mentioned before, anecdotally, my wife and I have noticed friends and family express a desire for Jesus' return. A review of messages from the last several months show examples such as, "I think it's time for the savior's return!" and "We just need the savior to come" and "only Jesus can save us now" and similar other requests and statements. As we thought about these 'prayers' we began discussing what they truly mean.  What is the best way to comprehend these statements? Are we to take them literally, or are they made in bad faith?

Most, if not all, of these statements were expressed in the context of life challenges, world events or other perceived difficulties. And, as I mentioned in the previous section, they were expressed in the context of church leaders choosing to focus on preparing for the return of Jesus. So, given all this context, it can be challenging to determine if this is "prophetic programming" or if indeed, these are personal expressions of what they are thinking and feeling. However, regardless of which is the best interpretation for how to interpret these expressions, I contend there is a higher, more rational path which might be more aligned with keeping the first great commandment, to use Christian vernacular.

Deconstructing this thought ('we need Jesus to return'), it seems to be synonymous with an abdication of responsibility. Exactly what is the problem for which we need a divine, super-power entity to come save us? This expression has been the verbal response to incurable cancer, political unrest, war, murders and assassinations. However, the world has, for centuries, experienced all these events and more and Christ did not return in response to those happenings. I would argue these recent events are minute compared to so many other atrocities humanity has previously endured. Indeed, we (humanity) have collectively confronted and addressed these issues before and we will continue confronting them and trying to resolve them. It is up to us; we have the ability to respond to each and all of these events - it is our responsibility.

Indeed, the universal gift God has granted each of us is the ability to "deal with that which has been given to [us]" (Epictetus, Discourses 1.29.39). What is up to us is the use of our rationality and choice in deciding which virtue we should exercise in response to an event, such as incurable cancer, political unrest, war, murders and assassinations. In fact, if one reads the entirety of Epictetus' Discourses, one will come away with the strong impression that Epictetus was dead set against complainers, gripers and anyone who would bemoan their lot in life (e.g. complain against God). Anyone who complained about his lot in life, was deemed to be malcontent by Epictetus. The righteous way; the pious way of living life, according to Epictetus, was to "die in a god-like way .. endure disease in a god-like way" (Discourse 2.8.28) and never find fault with God who has given him his lot and fate in life.

Consider this passage from Discourses 1.6.41-43.

[41]Possessing these faculties as you do, free and as your own, you fail to make use of them, however, and fail to perceive what it is that you have received, and from whom, [42] but sit there grieving and groaning, some of you blinded towards the giver and not even recognizing your benefactor, while others are led astray by their meanness of spirit into making reproaches and complaints against God. [43] And yet I can show you that you have the resources and equipment that are needed to be noble-minded and courageous, while it is for you to show me what occasion you have for complaint and reproach!

Or this rebuke about someone who thinks the will of God should be anything than what it is (Discourses 3.8.6).

‘But Zeus is not acting rightly in all of this.’—Why? Because he has given you the ability to endure things, and has made you noble-minded, because he has prevented these things from being evils, because he has made it possible for you to suffer them and still be happy, because he has left the door open for you, for when things are no longer good for you? Go out, man, and don’t complain.

In brief, God "has no need of a spectator who is always complaining about his lot" (Discourses 4.1.108).

I contend, whether someone proclaims to be a Christian or not, that to desire for Jesus or God to descend to earth in order to 'save us' breaks the first great commandment. We should be ashamed like little children who appeal to some authority to fix things for them. It is one thing for kids to act this way; it's entirely disgraceful for fully rational adults to abdicate responsibility for what is up to them.

Consequently, both the ancients and Jesus taught us how we are to approach trials, injustices and people who are vicious. We are to love what God has sent our way - we are to love our circumstances and those in our lives. And when it comes to loving who are in our lives (not the ones we naturally love, but the vicious), we are to turn the other cheek and go the extra mile (Matthew, 5:29, 41-42). When it comes to challenges and trails in life, we love them and God by demonstrating which virtues (courage, discipline, temperance or wisdom) are best suited for a given event. And when it comes to dealing with other people who choose or live poorly, we can do our part to teach and correct them. Epictetus (2015, fragment 5) provides an excellent example of the Spartan lawgiver Lycurgus.

Who among us doesn’t admire the saying of Lycurgus the Spartan? For when he had been blinded in one eye by one of his fellow citizens, and the young man was handed over to him by the people for him to exact whatever vengeance he might wish, he refrained from doing so, but gave him a proper education instead, made a good man of him, and presented him in the theatre; and when the Spartans showed surprise, he said, ‘When I received him from you, this man was offensive and violent, and I’m returning him to you as someone who is well behaved and public-spirited.

Conclusion

To conclude, human history is filled with predictions of Christ's Second Coming which ultimately proved false. It seems Mormonism learned its lesson to not emphasize the Second Coming as much, but in the recent years, church leaders have begun to underscore the importance of preparing for Christ's return, which has seemingly had the effect of causing some members to wish or pray for God to send His Son back to earth. However, I have argued this desire can sometimes function as an abdication of personal responsibility and agency—perhaps even contradicting the first great commandment to love God with all one’s heart, soul, and mind (Matthew 22:37). Rather than acting helpless to the challenges of life and supplicating for Jesus to save us, we should recall we have God-given gifts to deal well with our lot and fate in life. In fact, what we have been given was given by God! These challenges and events are ours to deal with and therefore, to love them, is to love God. And as for those who God has placed in our life, we are to turn the other cheek and go the extra mile in an effort to demonstrate the virtues which are up to us.

References

Epictetus. (2014). Discourses, Fragments, Handbook (R. Hard, Trans.). Oxford University Press.

General Conference Analytics. (2025). General Conference Analytics. Github.io. https://cgood92.github.io/general-conference-stats/#/search-trends?speaker=&start=1971&end=2025&searchTerms=second+coming&searchTerms=

Nelson, R. M. (2018, October). The Correct Name of the Church. Www.churchofjesuschrist.org. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/general-conference/2018/10/the-correct-name-of-the-church?lang=eng

Melendez, B. (Director). (1966, October 27). It’s the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown.

Renlund, D. (2025, April). Personal Preparation to Meet the Savior. Churchofjesuschrist.org. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/general-conference/2025/04/25renlund?lang=eng

Semerad, T. (2025, April). Why the LDS Church soon may not need tithing anymore to cover its global programs. The Salt Lake Tribune. https://www.sltrib.com/religion/2025/04/01/lds-church-wealth-day-soon-may/

Smith, J., & The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. (2022). History, 1838–1856, volume B-1 [1 September 1834–2 November 1838], Page 564. Josephsmithpapers.org. https://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/history-1838-1856-volume-b-1-1-september-1834-2-november-1838/18

Smith, J., & The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. (n.d.). Doctrine and Covenants 130. Www.churchofjesuschrist.org. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/130?lang=eng

Wikipedia Contributors. (2025, October 22). Predictions and claims for the Second Coming. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictions_and_claims_for_the_Second_Coming

Update on Podcast Project

In the event you were not aware, since I finished my philosophy degree, I have shifted my attention to creating a podcast based on much of the content found on this blog. The link to the podcast show is found at the top of the blog, or you can find it here: https://rockyrook.podbean.com/

To date, I've covered my commentary of Marcus Aurelius' Meditations up to book 6.  I just started working on the chapter 7 commentary and have published that episode. Be sure to subscribe to the podcast to be notified of when an episode is published.

After I've covered Meditations, I'll focus on Epictetus' Discourses and then I'll focus on Seneca's Moral Letters.

As to more writing on this blog, I have a few ideas I want to focus on, dealing more with Existentialism, but I'm not sure when I'll sit down on focus on that.

Thanks to stopping by!

PHRL 498 (Religion & Philosophy Capstone) - Intellectual Autobiography: From Pre-existence to Existence to Essence

 Introduction

The day after Halloween in 1992, my father drove me to a farm on the other side of the Snake River to Fruitland, Idaho. My appointment was with a man named Chad Clark and he was to give me a Patriarchal blessing, which, for Mormons, acts as a type of life roadmap for a person, and which not only is to guide the individual in the future but also pronounces from whence that person came. In the opening paragraph of my blessing, I was informed, “Prior to your mortal birth you lived in the world of spirits. It was there that you prepared for mortality. You associated with many great and important spirits. You grew to maturity and exercised your free agency, made covenants and were foreordained to positions of responsibility that are being shown to you as you proceed through life.” Being born into Mormonism (officially known as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) meant my essence was defined before I even had a chance to consider it. Many aspects of this religion formed and shaped me, however, I came to a point, around the age of 38, where I felt it did not serve me well anymore. This would become the starting point of my philosophical exploration and journey.

I began seeing a therapist named Laura McPherson, who not only gave me the space to express my feeling and thoughts, but she also recognized and acknowledged that I work for, live in and associate with a Type A company, a Type A community and Type A religion, meaning these organizations’ and communities’ populations tend to be comprised of people who exhibit traits such as aggressiveness, competitiveness, ambitiousness and authoritarianism (Sissons, 2022). To manage the anxiety and stress of these environments, she taught me a number of techniques as informed by Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT). This was my first pitstop in my philosophical journey. As I studied CBT, I found the linkages to Stoicism and how I could redirect my locus of control to within. This exploration sent me down a path of defining my true existence, as well as a deep dive into Hellenistic philosophy between the years of 2014 and 2021.

As I studied Stoicism, and in particular the idea of eternal recurrence (Durand et al., 2023), I came across references to Nietzsche’s doctrine of the same name (Wilkerson, n.d.) and how he used it as a litmus test to determine if an individual loves his fate and is living his best life. This discovery was the catalyst to widen my philosophic aperture to study not only Existentialism, but other philosophies. In 2021, I enrolled in American Public University (APU) and have since been studying philosophy and thinking about what my essence is and should be.

This essay will explore the three phases of my intellectual autobiography, with the first phase delving into Mormonism and my so-called pre-existence, phase two exploring Stoicism and how it helped me to delineate my existence, and phase three discovering Existentialism and how Nietzsche, Camus and Sartre have guided me to define my own meaning and essence.

Pre-existence and Mormonism

I was thrown into a Mormon family. Heidegger would say I was “never in control of [my] own being” and that I could not “determine or control biological or cultural factors that constrain possibilities” for myself (Wheeler, 2011). As such, I was indoctrinated into believing that I had pre-existed, meaning I had a life before I was born. And this is not in the sense of reincarnation, rather, it was in a spiritual, non-physical sense. In this pre-existence, there was a war of ideas with Jesus Christ on one side and Lucifer on the other. Mormons believe this war of ideas began as all humanity debated on the plan for existence (The Pearl of Great Price, 2013/1851). At the center of this plan was personal agency. On one side, Lucifer intended to remove choice and guarantee the salvation of all, while Christ intended to defend personal agency, but then provide a way for salvation to those who misuse their volition and consequently need to repent of sin. Christ would enter the mortal world, atone and pay the consequences of all humankind’s sin, and resurrect himself, thus breaking the chains of spiritual and physical death. Without fully explaining the intricacies and dogmas of Mormonism, I concluded that the most important virtue in the church is obedience. If a believer wanted to return to God’s presence (gain eternal life and happiness), as they were in the pre-existence, then they need to obey and follow the path outlined before them.

The Mormon faith teaches that happiness comes through obedience to teachings, commandments, and rituals. The long list of obedience includes attending church, scripture study, prayer, baptism at age eight, worthiness interviews during adolescence, missions and marriage, and making temple covenants to name a few. The most important blessings for Mormons are those found in the temple, and no one can attend the temple unless they commit 10% of their income to the church for their entire life – a Mormon’s salvation is entwined with lucre. And then parenthood renews the cycle, as raising children in the faith becomes integral to spiritual salvation. Happiness remains tied to lifelong obedience and generational continuity.

While this plan seems organized and clear, there are aspects which jeopardize one’s pursuit of joy. Not only must an individual stay on the straight and narrow path, but he has a responsibility for other people’s salvation, which can cause profound negative spiritual and mental effects if someone else’s choices put his own salvation at risk. The Doctrine and Covenants (2013/1851) notes that parents have a duty to baptize and rear their children in the religion. However, if parents fail in their efforts, the sins of the child will be on the parent’s heads. Furthermore, an early leader of the church, John Taylor, taught members, “If you do not magnify your callings, God will hold you responsible for those whom you might have saved had you done your duty” (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 2025). The central concept of the war of ideas in the pre-existence and the fight for one’s agency stand in stark contrast to the authoritarian mindset of obedience and guilt which are hallmarks in the religion’s modern teachings. For me, I could not exist authentically in this religion, nor did the virtue of spiritual obedience to a leader in a far-off city make logical sense to me.

Existence and Stoicism

After meeting with a psychotherapist for several weeks and discovering the linkages between CBT and Stoicism, I procured a copy of Marcus Aurelius’ Meditations (2014). Only a few passages were clear and meaningful to me when I read it the first time. Someone recommended that I read Pierre Hadot’s The Inner Citadel (2001) to fully comprehend all that Marcus Aurelius wrote. One chapter of Hadot’s book focuses entirely on Epictetus since he had such a profound impact on Aurelius. I then obtained a copy of Epictetus’ writings and from this point on, my library bloomed with books on Stoicism.

The single most important doctrine of Stoicism is the demarcation of what is “up to us” (Epictetus & Long, 2018) and what is not. Epictetus notes that our abilities to judge, our motivation and desires and aversions are the things that are up to us. But our body, possessions, our lot in life and even our reputation are not up to us. As I read this passage the first time and then repeatedly, I felt an immense sense of relief as I comprehended such a clearly defined locus of control which stood in contrast to the guilt-tripping, manipulation and expansive locus of duties required in Mormonism. Epictetus’ lesson on delineation pervades Aurelius’ Meditations and is expanded upon by Hadot. Once I understood this demarcation, I realized I could truly exist and set boundaries between my innermost self and other people and events.

My studies further deepened as I discovered The College of Stoic Philosophers. Their courses taught me Stoic physics, logic and ethics. During these classes, I began to learn the language and subjects of philosophy. I was introduced to Skepticism, Epicureanism, Neo-Platonism and other schools of thought. However, I was not expecting to encounter Existentialism while studying Stoicism.

While studying Stoic physics I learned of the idea of eternal recurrence (Durand et al., 2023), and how Nietzsche’s doctrine of the same name (Wilkerson, n.d.) was used to great effect to help individuals determine if they truly love their fate and are living their best life. Hadot (2001) also made the same connection. The longer I contemplated the concept of amor fati and saying “yes” to my life repeatedly and endlessly, I realized there was perhaps more work to be done in terms of discovering my essence.

Essence and Existentialism

My first act of asserting a definition of my essence was to apply at APU and enroll in my first philosophy course. Philosophy 101 did not discuss Existentialism, but a posting by one of the students referred to Kierkegaard and how his writings had a profound impact on her life. She listed Sartre, Camus and other Existentialist philosophers as notable influences in her life as well. While I had come across Camus and Nietzsche a few years before, I knew nothing else about Existentialism. After taking several required philosophy classes, by June 2023 I enrolled in a course on Existentialism; perhaps my favorite course of all the classes I’ve taken.

Stoicism’s mantra of “living according to Nature” (Sellars, 2014, p. 125) nicely sums the aim for life, but implicit in that motto is a trust in the universe that all was intended to be exactly as it occurs. For some, the effort in trying to discern reasons for why the universe dishes out breath-taking hardships can be too much for their schema of existence. To me, Camus’ assessment of the universe seems a smidge more honest than the Stoic assessment. His definition of the absurd, which explains the tension of humanity’s relentless quest to find meaning despite the fact that the Cosmos forever remains silent, resonates more deeply with me. Rather than being forced to find a meaning for one’s strange circumstance (Stoicism), one is free to admit the absurdity of existence and is liberated to define one’s own meaning and essence. 

Later in my course on Existentialism, I learned that I had been living in “bad faith” because I was largely dependent on other’s norms and values (Overthink Podcast & Anderson, 2022) and I was only dreaming of my essence (Flynn, 2006). Even though I had been liberated from Mormonism, I realized I was largely finding comfort in my fate or facticity, and I was denying that I had a responsibility to positively create my meaning and essence instead of remaining fixed in my circumstances. In July 2023, while on a business trip in India, I came to a profound realization I was shirking my responsibility and that I needed to begin to live in good faith and act on creating my essence (Putnam, 2023). Since writing that essay, I enrolled in a number of psychology classes at APU, and I am about to complete my college degree in philosophy. I have also solidified my plans to retire from my corporate career by the year 2031 and enroll in a Master of Counseling program with the intent to become a licensed professional counselor (LPC). Beyond this next phase, I intend to practice my craft in a hospital or university setting, helping other people through life’s challenges as well as assisting them in finding their own meaning project.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this essay explored the three phases of my intellectual autobiography, with the first phase delving into Mormonism and my so-called pre-existence, phase two examining Stoicism and how it helped me to delineate my existence, and phase three uncovering Existentialism and how Nietzsche, Camus, and Sartre guided me to define my own meaning and essence. 

References

Aurelius, M. (2014). Meditations (M. Hammond, Trans.). Penguin Classics, An Imprint Of Penguin Books.

Durand, M., Shogry, S., & Baltzly, D. (2023). Stoicism (E. N. Zalta & U. Nodelman, Eds.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stoicism/#CosmCyclConf 

Epictetus, & Long, A. A. (2018). How to be free : an ancient guide to the stoic life : Encheiridion and selections from Discourses. Princeton University Press.

Flynn, T. R. (2006). Existentialism : a very short introduction. Oxford University Press.

Hadot, P. (2001). The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius (M. Chase, Trans.). Cambridge, Mass. London Harvard University Press.

Overthink Podcast, & Anderson, E. (2022). Sartre’s theory of bad faith. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UUXXmHkI-Ug

Putnam, D. (2023). Time and Existentialist Creation. Rockyrook.com. https://www.rockyrook.com/2023/07/rel-411-time-and-existentialist-creation.html

Sellars, J. (2014). Stoicism. Routledge.

Sissons, B. (2022, September 30). Personality types: Type A and type B traits. Www.medicalnewstoday.com. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/type-a-vs-type-b.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. (2025). Chapter 18: Service in the Church. Churchofjesuschrist.org. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/teachings-john-taylor/chapter-18?lang=eng 

The Doctrine and Covenants. (2013). Doctrine and Covenants 68. Www.churchofjesuschrist.org. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/68?lang=eng (Original work published 1835)

The Pearl of Great Price. (2013). Abraham 3. Www.churchofjesuschrist.org. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/abr/3?lang=eng (Original work published 1851)

Wheeler, M. (2011). Martin Heidegger (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Stanford.edu. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/heidegger/

Wilkerson, D. (n.d.). Nietzsche, Friedrich | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://iep.utm.edu/nietzsch/#H7

MGMT 314 (Ethics in Management) - Ethical Evolution of Modern American Businesses

 Abstract

This essay discusses the positive advancement of ethics in U.S. based businesses over the last 130 years. It then reviews common unethical practices and how leadership addresses these challenges. The essay then examines how the 2007-2008 financial crisis was essentially a people process failure as good-intentioned choices led to significant negative consequences. Lastly it argues that minimizing discrimination and supporting diversity, in tandem with corporate outreach and employee volunteerism programs benefit both the business and the employees’ lives.

 

Introduction

In 1882, one of the richest men in the United States and world let slip his limited and stunted view on ethics, when he told a reporter “The public be damned” (Gordon, 1989). In an age of tycoons when the interests of many common workers and citizens were ignored or overlooked, William Henry Vanderbilt conveyed, in those four words, his disregard for the common welfare. Through the years, American businesses with the encouragement of lawmakers, have made progress in promoting ethics and supporting the common good. Legislation like the Clayton Antitrust Act and various other types of reforms are evidence that businesses have positively evolved over the years. While most workers don’t have access to make decisions which impact their corporation or public, many grapple with day-to-day, common ethical choices dealing with theft, conflicts of interest and dishonesty. Less common, but nonetheless impactful, are the choices of people which led to the 2007-2008 financial meltdown, in which it is learned that sometimes people’s good ethical intentions lead to negative consequences. Lastly, evidence of modern American businesses positively evolving from an ethics perspective is the continued efforts to eradicate discrimination and to promote diversity, along with the increased focus on corporate efforts to boost outreach in the community through company sponsored events and employee volunteerism.

Modern Businesses Have Positively Evolved

American businesses have evolved significantly from Vanderbilt’s time. In his era, many workers and even the public had little to no recourse to reign in the tycoons and barons who controlled vast sums of money and assets. Ginsberg (2017) argues the United States, with its democratic form of government, was able to modulate businesses’ practices and establish legal reforms while avoiding the reactionary and violent workers’ revolutions which occurred in Russia and Germany. Workers who suffered from poor working conditions and inadequate pay benefited from the Clayton Antitrust Act by having the opportunity to work for competitors instead of a single monopoly.

Ginsberg (2017) also documents the rebirth of American industry after World War II which saw the creation of many shareholders as average citizens who began investing on a significant scale. This pivot brought a dip in concern for business ethics. However, by the 1970s, the American stockholder and consumer began to take a prominent position. Worker pensions and retirement savings accounts rose significantly. While improvements in ethics continued to advance, financial fraud increased from the 1980s to the early 2000s. In light of negative impacts on shareholders and employees due to the downfall of Enron and the Bernie Madoff Ponzi scheme, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform Act were passed to support the positive evolution of holding powerful corporations accountable for unethical behaviors.

Common Forms of Unethical Behavior

While most workers lack the ability to influence corporate or public decisions, they frequently face everyday ethical challenges. As discussed in Schwartz (2017), a national survey indicated that more than 40% of U.S. workers witnessed unethical behavior in the prior year. The more common misconduct included theft, conflicts of interest, and dishonesty. From stealing small items such as pencils and sticky notes, to falsifying travel and expense reports, many workers try to justify their unethical actions by claiming ignorance or even accidental intentions. However, upon deeper investigation, employees’ actions are usually a result of putting self-interest above the interests of the business, or in other words, the worker faces a conflict of interests.

In an attempt to create greater clarity and to assist workers in making correct moral decisions, leaders can establish core ethical values and then translate those values into policies (Schwartz, 2017). Core values are usually captured and explained in an organization’s code of ethics. The code of ethics begins with a mission statement and then it explores and clarifies the organization’s values. The code of ethics is then used as the basis to make policies and employee conduct more explicit. A code of conduct is a part of a code of ethics. The code of conduct is generally more detailed and rule-based, as it explains specific standards of business conduct which employees are expected to uphold in their day-to-day work activities.

While these low-level, very common unethical behaviors appear in day-to-day business operations, they may not necessarily lead to major ethical scandals. Fewer and far between are ethical choices people make, which have profound consequences on society and millions of people’s lives. One such example is the 2007-2008 financial meltdown.

Unethical Behavior in the 2007-2008 Financial Meltdown?

The catalyst for the 2007-2008 financial crisis was the Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) created in 1977 and reinforced in the late 1990s which was to allow low-income families access to a home and to "make widespread homeownership a national goal" (Richman, 2012). Some may debate if the CRA truly was the cause of this failure, however Agarwal (2012) shows data indicating banks’ evaluations of loan origination was driven by the CRA which led to riskier banking decisions. Without the CRA, banks normally would not have approved of these loans. While most banks avoided these types of risks, Government Sponsored Enterprises such as Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, took on these risks and issued loans to less qualified homebuyers mainly because they were not only mandated by the federal government, but also backed by the government, meaning the risk would be ultimately born by the government. The dot-com economic bubble and the September 11th terrorist attack further accelerated the lowering of interest rates to stimulate the economy, only increasing demand for home mortgages. Banks then offloaded the risk of sub-prime mortgages by bundling the uncertain loans into mortgage-backed securities and then sold them to investors around the world.

While the U.S. government and banking institutions shoulder the blame for this significant financial crisis, it appears the intent of these choices were made in good faith, and this was essentially a people failure as opposed to a capital market process failure. The intent of the CRA was to break the barriers of entry for many Americans who could otherwise never live in a home. In fact, when the CRA was created in 1977, it was targeting banks who refused to issue "mortgage loans in distressed areas of a city" (Boatright, 2007, p. 160) which then had the effect of further urban decay. Therefore, from a deontological ethical perspective, politicians from the 1970s and 1990s felt it was their duty to affect positive changes to incentivize banks to take on more risk. And from a utilitarian perspective, it could be argued the benefits of wider home ownership outweigh the risks banks had to endure. There was no unethical behavior and intent per se, but perhaps there were unintended consequences of the impetus for change, which was the U.S. government intending to promote the common good. However, in the end, the impact was so extensive and severe, it caused the biggest economic meltdown in the world since the Great Depression.

Eradicating Discrimination and Promoting Diversity

Hiring managers and leadership need to be discerning regarding who they hire so that organizational goals and objectives can be adequately accomplished. To this end, hiring or firing decisions should not solely be based on gender, race, age or other biased considerations. Both the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, n.d.) and The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2024) preclude the discrimination of workers based on their race, color, religion, sex, national origin or age. In summary, employees and potential workers should be considered and treated fairly and not be subject to discrimination based on factors out of their control. Historically, too often, management and leadership were targeting minority groups by excluding them for consideration for hire, promotion or pay increases.

Today, many leaders and managers recognize the power of diversity in such factors as gender, ethnicity, and neurological processing. A business which operates in various communities or countries should reflect the makeup of the society in which it operates (Collins and Edgewood College School of Business, 2013). By representing the diverse composition of a society, the business places itself in a position to comprehend and better serve its customers, as well as to avoid potential legal troubles.

One recent example of leadership mismanaging a discrimination issue is that of The Results Company, LLC (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2024a). After hiring a disabled (blind) worker, the company refused to accommodate her and subsequently fired her. She had requested screen reader software to perform her job, but the company took minimal steps to assist. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission has filed a lawsuit against the company in order to compensate the fired worker as well as to ensure The Results Company updates its procedures for managing similar situations in the future.

Corporate Outreach and Volunteerism

Beyond ensuring due diligence in preventing discrimination and instilling positive procedures for a diverse workforce, businesses can do even more to ensure their brand and social reputation remain positive and even improve. Programs which support corporate outreach and employee volunteer efforts have empirically shown they help the organization improve performance, increase brand recognition, improve customer loyalty and improve goodwill in society (Longenecker, et al., 2013). When employees are given opportunities to volunteer, studies have shown that these efforts go a long way to improve employee values such as “compassion, humility, sympathy, empathy, and joy” (Longenecker, et al., 2013, p. 10) and that this has the added effect of promoting a work-life balance as well as camaraderie with fellow-workers. In the era of quiet quitting, a Harvard Business Review (Moss, 2023) article confirms the old adage of a happy workforce being a productive workforce. Moss (2023) notes research stating that when workers are happy, there is a 13% bump in productivity, but when they are not engaged (e.g. quietly quitting) they are unhappy and depriving businesses of $8.8 trillion worth of work. As a result, leadership should support and promote corporate outreach and employee volunteer programs to not only benefit the bottom line of the business, but to improve the lives of the workers and employees.

Conclusion

In conclusion, over the last 130 years, American businesses, with lawmakers' support, have advanced in ethics which have benefitted the common good. Laws like the Clayton Antitrust Act, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform Act show this progress. While most employees lack decision-making power in corporations, they face day-to-day ethical challenges, such as theft and conflicts of interest. Some ethical choices, like those leading to the 2007-2008 financial crisis, have had unintended negative consequences. However, businesses continue to evolve by combating discrimination, promoting diversity, and increasing corporate social responsibility through community outreach, company-sponsored events, and employee volunteerism, reinforcing their commitment to ethical growth and sustainability. 

References

Agarwal, S., National Bureau of Economic Research., Benmelech, E., Bergman, N., & Seru, A. (2012). Did the Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) Lead to Risky Lending? National Bureau of Economic Research.

Boatright, J. R. (2007). Finance Ethics. A Companion to Business Ethics, 153–163. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470998397.ch13

Collins, D., & Edgewood College School of Business. (2013, July 18). Best Practices on Employee Diversity. Www.youtube.com. https://www.youtube.com/embed/5egW09F1AXQ?wmode=opaque&rel=0

Ginsberg, D. (2017, April 21). Evolution of business ethics in the US: From exploitation to ethics? California Management Review. https://cmr.berkeley.edu/2017/04/evolution-of-business-ethics/ 

Gordon, J. S. (1989). “The Public Be Damned.” AMERICAN HERITAGE. https://www.americanheritage.com/public-be-damned

Longenecker, C. O., Beard, S., & Scazzero, J. A. (2013). What about the workers? The workforce benefits of corporate volunteer programs. Development and Learning in Organizations, 27(1), 9-12. https://doi.org/10.1108/14777281311291213 

Moss, J. (2023, October 20). Creating a Happier Workplace Is Possible — and Worth It. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2023/10/creating-a-happier-workplace-is-possible-and-worth-it 

Richman, S. (2012, October 14). Clinton’s Legacy: The Financial and Housing Meltdown. Reason.com. https://reason.com/2012/10/14/clintons-legacy-the-financial-and-housin/ 

Schwartz, M. S. (2017). Business ethics : An ethical decision-making approach. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.

U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (n.d.). Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Www.eeoc.gov. https://www.eeoc.gov/statutes/title-vii-civil-rights-act-1964 

U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2024). The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 | U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Www.eeoc.gov. https://www.eeoc.gov/statutes/age-discrimination-employment-act-1967 

U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2024a). EEOC Sues The Results Companies for Disability Discrimination. US EEOC. https://www.eeoc.gov/newsroom/eeoc-sues-results-companies-disability-discrimination 

College of Stoic Philosophers Stoic Essentials Studies - What to Expect & Primers

School of Athens by Raphael

 The College of Stoic Philosophers is an on-line school to help people learn and apply Stoicism. In my experience, most people decide to apply to the college and enroll in the Stoic Essentials Course (SES) because there has been some catalyst in their life (e.g. needing improved resiliency, self-exploration, continuing education). The school has observed that there are a lot of people who apply, but a good amount of people don't finish, despite paying $100 for the course. I've had 15 students assigned to me, 8 completed the course, 4 either dropped the course or simply stopped communicating, and 3 are in progress and close to finishing (as of February 2025).

The purpose of this post is to simply give people a bit more detail as to what to expect, in terms of time commitment and work.

Up front, applicants will need to write a "know thyself" essay which is at least 1000 words. The essay is really meant to help the applicant think about why they have decided to join the college as a student and take the SES course (see the SES site for a number of questions the essay needs to address). Besides the essay, the applicant will share a bit more context about him or herself so that their potential mentor can learn about them. The cost of SES is $100 (as of 2025).

After they submit their application, their essay is shared with a faculty member (the mentor), who will read the essay and take the applicant as a student.

After a student is assigned, they are granted access to Moodle (the learning software) after which the student needs to contact (email) their mentor to schedule a conference. This initial meeting usually occurs over video-conference. In the conference, the mentor will explain and provide an overview of SES, and ensure the student has a copy of the course material (John Sellars' book titled Stoicism).

SES is divided into two parts: 4 modules of theory covering an introduction, logic, physics and ethics) and 4 modules on practice (transition, Stoic practices, case studies and essay on duty). During the first 4 modules, the student reads Sellars' Stoicism, takes notes, answers questions and completes a few quizzes. During the second 4 modules, the student goes through a series of practices and writing in an effort to think about how to apply and incorporate Stoicism in their life. In brief, you will need to read a book, take a few quizzes, and write several short answers to questions and write a few short essays.

It is recommended the student take two weeks to complete each module. If the student dedicates 2 to 3 hours per week to read and respond to the short answer sections and brief quizzes, for a total of 4 to 6 hours per module, then there is plenty of time for them to complete SES in two months. I would recommend potential SES students plan to set aside 2 to 3 hours per week over the course of two months, for a total of 16 to 24 hours of effort.

What should you do before you decide to take the leap into SES? Some students already have a deep philosophical or religious background, while others might not know anything about the topics of logic, physics or ethics (I certainly knew nothing of these topics when I took SES). Depending on your level, I would recommend the following primers (if you're brand new to philosophy, watch and read everything, but if you are familiar with philosophy, read the last two articles).

• What is Philosophy?: Crash Course Philosophy #1 by Hank Green
• What is Philosophy? - First Lecture of the Semester by Jeffrey Kaplan
• The History of Philosophy: Origins of Ancient Philosophy Around the Globe by Kelly Macquire
• Socrates (469 - 399 B.C.E.) by James M. Ambury
• Stoicism by Marion Durand, Simon Shogry, Dirk Baltzly

After these primers, below are other resources to articles or podcasts which the Stoicism student should read / listen to either before, during or after taking SES.

• Epictetus' Enchiridion
• Marcus Aurelius' Meditations
• Chris Fischer's Stoicism on Fire podcast

Stoicism has become wildly popular over the last 20 years, but in particular there was a significant spike in interest during the COVID-19 pandemic, and interest continues to be high in 2025. That continued interest leads many, like myself, to publish and share free, on-line resources on the topic of Stoicism. The above links will get you started and primed for SES. Beyond these resources, you will find hundreds of books, videos, on-line articles, blogs and other content to guide you on your way!

Welcome to philosophy and Stoicism!

MGMT 314 (Ethics in Management) - Historical Perspectives in Business Ethics and Pay Gaps

The writing prompt for week 2 of this class was rather interesting and pertinent to my current job as well as current events.

The prompt was "From your perspective, what are two of the most interesting historical ethical dilemmas that we have faced as a society? How do they relate to our reading material from weeks #1 and #2?"

"How did Adam Smith justify the ethics of capitalism? How does capitalism fit in with modern business life and how does it impact ethical dilemmas that you have seen or heard of in the workplace?  Use examples to support your positions."

Besides answering the prompt, we were supposed to weave a current event from an article on CNBC.com from the business section.

Below is my response.

Human civilization and ethics have evolved over centuries. By the time Adam Smith appeared in history, he based his ideas and ethics on forbearers like Locke. While Locke recognized life, liberty and property as natural rights, he fell short in acknowledging equal rights and status of class between land owners and laborers (Schweigert, 2016). The book notes of Locke, "not only did their low station in life show that they were incapable of rational conduct, but their poverty showed their moral depravity as well" (Schweigert, 2016, p. 73). Smith went further than Locke and argued that "the property which every man has in his own labour, as it is the original foundation of all other property" (Schweigert, 2016, p. 74). Therefore, capital in Smith's view is not simply land and physical assets, but also the physical and even mental work of the individual. This idea still finds relevance in modern business life in which individual workers ought to be compensated fairly for the physical and mental work they produce, regardless of their gender or race. Even still, there are ethical dilemmas which modern workers and corporations face when it comes to pay gaps.

While there are many ethical dilemmas, generally speaking I think historical dilemmas related to pay gaps and race seem to have long-standing dialogues which impact our society even today. One article from our reading this week (Shin, 2014) discusses the pay gap between executives and average workers for American companies. It notes that the pay gap actually decreased between the years of 1940 to 1970, but then after 1970 the gap widened and then significantly increased in the 1990s. To give a sense of just how significant the pay gap grew, the ratio of CEO pay to average worker was between 30 and 120 from around 1940 to 1970, but then that ratio grew to over 270 by the 1990s. The article further noted the key drivers for how that gap either decreased or increased.  If workers form a union, then the pay gap can decrease, however, if "the CEO has a finance background" or if the CEO is an external hire, then the pay gap tends to increase (Shin, 2014, p. 1339).

Related to the executive to average worker gap, there are also gaps in pay between races. As more countries enter the global economy, the pay gap in job sectors becomes very apparent. For example, Sindwani (2019) notes that U.S. IT workers are paid eight times more than Indian IT workers. This pay gap has driven many U.S. based companies to outsource and offshore work to India. In fact, this pay gap has been leveraged through the H-1B visa program which has recently been in the news again. Several years ago, 60 Minutes (CBS News, 2017) ran a segment explaining this program and how many American companies have hired Indian workers for much less pay so they could replace American workers.

In both these cases, there appears to be a dilemma: should the company continue to find ways to deliver the same product for less cost, or should the company keep or increase costs but pay workers more? This dilemma may only become worse as more automation from Artificial Intelligence (AI) replaces many workers, in which companies do not have to pay health insurance or other benefits for AI bots.  Also, these bots can work 24 hours a day. One company has plans for rolling out and implementing AI (Daniel, 2024) after which it plans to cut its workforce in half. While this company increased pay for its employees by more than 70%, its overall workforce will be reduced.  This is one way a company can cut costs while addressing pay gaps, but then this introduces another dilemma: do companies have an obligation to hire people for the sake of giving people a job?

Another ethical dilemma businesses face is highlighted in the recent news article section of CNBC (Repko, 2024). Many U.S. based companies have implemented programs to advance diversity, equity and inclusion (DEI) in their workforce, especially since the death of George Floyd. However, due to pressure from consumers as well as pressure to reduce costs, many companies like Walmart are cutting DEI programs. Some companies contend that their DEI programs actually help them become more competitive and deliver a better product to the market, thus increasing revenues. However, other companies cite market research and consumer backlash as reasons to drop their DEI programs.

Speaking personally from a perspective of working in a global company and having worked with hundreds of teams and people from all over the United States, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Hungary, Malaysia, India and the Philippines, I can confidently state that executive management has done it's best to move work and resources outside the United States to not only reduce costs, but to also avoid high standards of diversity, equity and inclusion set in and by the United States. While executives can claim they embrace DEI standards for workers in the U.S. (which may account for 20% of their workforce), they can ignore these standards in India and other places, which accounts for 80% of their workforce. In fact, almost half of the human work performed by my company is conducted out of India, which still lives by a caste system mentality. While globalization and modernization has eroded the influence of the Indian caste system (Alam, 2023), it still has sway in many business aspects today.

References

60 Minutes, & CBS News. (2017). “60 Minutes” examines H-1B visas outsourcing American jobs. In CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/video/60-minutes-examines-h-1b-visas-outsourcing-american-jobs/

Alam, M. (2023). Occupational and Educational Changes in Indian Caste System: A Systematic Review. Contemporary Voice of Dalit. https://doi.org/10.1177/2455328X231186255

Daniel, A. (2024). Klarna plans to nearly halve workforce as AI replaces human jobs. In Press Association. Press Association Limited.

Repko, M. (2024, November 26). Walmart pulls back on DEI efforts, removes some LGBTQ merchandise from website. CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2024/11/26/walmart-pulls-back-on-dei-efforts-removes-some-lbgtq-merchandise-.html

Schweigert, F. J. (2016). Business Ethics Education and the Pragmatic Pursuit of the Good. Cham Springer International Publishing.

Shin, T. (2014). Explaining Pay Disparities between Top Executives and Nonexecutive Employees: A Relative Bargaining Power Approach. Social Forces, 92(4), 1339–1372. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sou004

Sindwani , P. (2019, June 11). Here’s how much an IT employee makes in different countries. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.in/heres-how-much-does-an-it-employee-makes-in-different-countries/articleshow/69739244.cms

COMM 280 (Ethics in Communications) - Media and Celebrity Death

 Introduction

The case study entitled Celebrity Death in the Media (Williams & Stroud, 2020) discusses the context of a controversial tweet after the unexpected death of the NBA superstar Kobe Bryant. In January 2020, Bryant died in a helicopter crash. While many fans and media outlets expressed shock over Bryant’s death and appreciation for all his philanthropic efforts through his life, a journalist at the Washington Post named Felicia Sonmez tweeted an article from 2016 which recounted Bryant’s rape accusation from 2003. Bryant’s accuser ultimately settled out of court and no jury found him guilty of rape, however Sonmez wanted to seize on the moment to add to the national conversation about rape victims who are silenced by powerful people as part of the #MeToo movement. This essay will first compare and contrast the values on display in this case, including whether speaking ill of the recent deceased is taboo or not. It will then discuss a few principles journalists may consider following when reporting deaths of notable public figures who may have been surrounded by controversy.

Media Values and Taboo of Speaking Ill of Dead

The context of Sonmez’s tweet is significant in understanding why she tweeted it in the aftermath of Bryant’s death. In the middle of the #MeToo movement (Brittain, 2023), in 2018, Sonmez shared her own story of being sexually abused by her former colleague Jon Kaiman (Harris, 2019). She came forward with her story after another woman told her story of suffering similar abuse at the hand of Kaiman. At the time Sonmez told her story, Kaiman was employed by the Los Angeles Times. The Los Angeles Times initiated an investigation into Kaiman after which he resigned from the newspaper. Unfortunately, this was not the end for Sonmez. In the following months there were counter-stories which attempted to cast doubt and bad faith motivations on Sonmez. One podcaster went so far as to state Sonmez had weaponized “female vulnerability” (Harris, 2019). Sonmez argues that for the sexual assault victim, the on-going trauma and defense of her reputation is emotionally draining and that she must constantly assert her voice.

Almost two years after telling her own story, Sonmez witnessed broad media adoration for an arguably (although not legally) accused rapist (Bryant) who had just died in a helicopter crash. To Sonmez, this adulation was repulsive, and she simply wanted to temper the sentiment and build on the #MeToo movement which was still on-going during this time. To put the timeline in context, Jeffrey Epstein was arrested (sex trafficking of minors) six months before Bryant died (Sancton, 2022). In brief, the value on display by Sonmez was to provide the full picture, story and context of a person’s life. To her, she felt the strong rape accusations Bryant had faced in 2003 ought to be discussed amongst all the other deeds from his life. Other journalists felt Sonmez’s tweet about Bryant’s actions from 2003 was ill-timed due to his death (Williams & Stroud, 2020).

From a utilitarian perspective, some like Sonmez argue that all is fair when speaking of the dead. To her, all actions from Bryant’s life are fair game regardless of when people discuss his life (at the time of his death or when he is alive). What matters is that the entire story is told, so the utility of a person’s life can be judged. However, some contend (Sackville, 2019) that speaking ill of the dead is immoral most likely because people don’t want others to speak ill of them when they die. But Sackville goes on to note the life record of the deceased ought to be told wholly and correctly, as in the case of Michael Jackson’s life, with regard to people having believed he molested children. In fact, on the very day Michal Jackson died, the New York Times (Barnes, 2009) published an online article of his death and offered an obituary of him, in which the author bluntly noted Jackson’s strange behavior and how he was accused and indicted for molesting children. Perhaps social media has changed between 2009 and 2020, but it seems there was no similar outrage at this author speaking ill of the recently dead Michael Jackson in 2009.

Ethical Principles for Media to Consider When Reporting on Deaths

In contrasting the reporting of the deaths of Bryant and Jackson along with the controversial aspects of their lives, perhaps the difference is in the tone in which they were represented. In 2009 when Jackson died, social media did not have the size and instant dialogue which those platforms hold today and a few years ago in 2020. Journalists had to ponder and consider what they would write before publicizing it. However, by 2020, reporting of celebrity deaths could be done instantaneously and immediately shared and commented on. Therefore, in Bryant’s death, news of his death was reported immediately, and commentary of his life was instantaneous. Sonmez was another voice which did not stop and consider before publishing.

Besides tone and consideration, journalists and media outlets must be weary and guard against sensationalism (Forward Pathway, 2024). Much of the news and content on social media today is driven by how many clicks and shares an article or post can get. The importance of sensationalizing takes priority over all other ethical and journalistic integrity standards. While Sonmez may have been trying to add context to the debate, there was a bit of sensationalism and edginess to her tweet.

Conclusion

In sum, the reporting of the death of Bryant and Sonmez’s tweet offer an opportunity to discuss the competing values held by the public and various journalists. It also noted how the taboo of speaking ill of the dead may not really be a taboo, but rather it is the tone and discourse of reporting controversial aspects of a person’s life. Therefore, journalists must consider tone and guard against sensationalism. 

References

Barnes, B. (2009, June 26). A Star Idolized and Haunted, Michael Jackson Dies at 50. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/26/arts/music/26jackson.html?ref=obituaries&_r=0 

Brittain, A. (2023, March 27). Me Too movement. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Me-Too-movement 

Forward Pathway. (2024, October 27). Ethical Controversies in Celebrity Death Reporting - Forward Pathway. Forward Pathway. https://www.forwardpathway.us/ethical-controversies-in-celebrity-death-reporting

Harris, L. (2019, November 6). Correcting the record. Columbia Journalism Review. https://www.cjr.org/criticism/felicia-sonmez-metoo.php 

Sackville, K. (2019, March 5). Why is it still so taboo to speak ill of the dead? The Sydney Morning Herald. https://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/life-and-relationships/why-is-it-still-so-taboo-to-speak-ill-of-the-dead-20190304-p511o9.html 

Sancton, J. (2022, September 29). #MeToo Five Years Later: A Timeline of Allegations, Accountability and Activism. The Hollywood Reporter. https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/general-news/metoo-five-years-timeline-allegations-accountability-activism-1235228661/

Williams, K., & Stroud, S. R. (2020, October 5). Celebrity Death in the Media - Center for Media Engagement - Center for Media Engagement. Mediaengagement.org. https://mediaengagement.org/research/celebrity-death-in-the-media/

COMM 280 (Ethics in Communications) - Greenwashing

 Introduction

The case study entitled It Ain’t Easy Being Green (Madureira et al., 2023) provides examples of companies which support the environment and ones which seem to be greenwashing. Essentially, the term greenwashing describes companies which are not entirely ethical or honest in the way they are carrying out their environmental duties. This essay will further elaborate on this definition and describe ethical conflicts companies face when dealing with protecting the environment and achieving corporate objectives. It will then suggest principles for companies to improve their environmental ethical stance. Lastly it will offer how Windex could apply these principles in their specific ad campaign.

Greenwashing and Conflict in Ethical Values

Pizzetti et al. (2021) frame the problem of how companies address environmental responsibility demands issued by governments. In response to these demands, some companies earnestly change and become more responsible. However, others do not change their practices and only change superficially in order to appear more environmentally friendly. In brief, companies who greenwash only talk the talk and do not walk the walk. Another form of greenwashing is when “companies use their suppliers as scapegoats for their own shortcomings” (Pizzetti et al., 2021, p. 22). The fundamental problem of greenwashing is the degree of honesty and transparency a company demonstrates. While the public may expect some ambiguity in advertising, those companies which take excessive liberty in their communications are taking more credit for positive practices than they should.

Perhaps the main ethical conflict in values companies face is balancing the goals of maximizing profits for shareholders, pensioners and other dependents with the demands and costs of implementing practices to improve the environment. With every effort to improve their environmental stance, costs eat into revenue which impacts the livelihoods of those who depend on company profits. In sum, the main ethical conflict is determining the right approach to meet the demands for both shareholders and government mandates to protect the environment.

While some companies genuinely improve the environment, most customers won’t be able to objectively discern if the company is truly helping or hurting the environment. To that end, companies should use agreed upon standards to measure their net impact on the environment and steward to that number in an effort to be more transparent for consumers.

Carbon Footprint

The most widely accepted standard for measuring the environmental impact of a business or even consumer is the carbon footprint. The Encyclopædia Britannica (Selin, 2013) defines it as direct emissions from activities like fossil-fuel combustion in manufacturing, heating, and transportation, along with the emissions generated to produce the electricity used for goods and services consumed. Similar to the concept of utilitarianism, the assumption is if each consumer (either a person or a business) reduces its carbon footprint, then the collective environmental impact of the world is lowered.

As the carbon footprint standard is more widely adopted, studies (Schleich & Alsheimer, 2024) have shown that some consumers are willing to directly pay for carbon offsets as well as provide patronage to those businesses who are improving the environment. Consequently, more consumers will begin demanding businesses calculate and disclose their carbon footprint. As more businesses comply, consumers will be better positioned to make informed buying choices.

Reporting and Disclosure

In the past, carbon footprint accounting may have been difficult to calculate and report. There was no widely accepted consensus on metrics nor methodologies. However, after years of trial and error and alignment between countries, the collective work of governments has produced standards, and now new third-party solutions can be deployed on a broad scale. As recently as November 2024, the market is producing ways for businesses to track and report their carbon footprint (CarbonChain has received third-party validation for its latest Corporate Carbon Footprint Accounting and Reporting Methodology and Product Carbon Footprint Accounting and Reporting Methodology, 2024). In this specific example, CarbonChain is a pioneer in the arena by offering a platform which supports businesses and manufacturers by enabling them to calculate and report on their carbon footprint.

Pivots for Windex

In the case study (Madureira et al., 2023), Windex was accused of greenwashing because they claimed their bottles were made of 100% recycled plastic from the ocean, when in fact a good portion of the recycled plastic was not retrieved from the ocean. In an effort to avoid being perceived as greenwashing, perhaps Windex could leverage tools like CarbonChain to report Windex’s carbon footprint number. Therefore, rather than focusing on a specific area of the environment (e.g. removing plastics from the ocean), they could simply report on the net impact of their product on the environment and whether it is decreasing or increasing.

Conclusion

In sum, greenwashing occurs when companies’ words do not align with their environmental actions, especially when they claim they are taking action to support the environment but in fact are not. Standards and tools exist, such as measuring a carbon footprint with technology like CarbonChain, which, if deployed, could help companies become more honest and transparent in their efforts to avoid being perceived as a company which greenwashes. 

References

CarbonChain has received third-party validation for its latest Corporate Carbon Footprint Accounting and Reporting Methodology and Product Carbon Footprint Accounting and Reporting Methodology. (2024, Nov 11). PR Newswire http://ezproxy.apus.edu/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fwire-feeds%2Fcarbonchain-has-received-third-party-validation%2Fdocview%2F3126705741%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D8289 (2024). In Canada NewsWire. PR Newswire Association LLC.

Madureira, K., Williams, K., & Stroud, S. R. (2023, December 7). It ain’t Easy Being Green - Center for Media Engagement - Center for Media Engagement. Mediaengagement.org. https://mediaengagement.org/research/it-aint-easy-being-green/ 

Pizzetti, M., Gatti, L., & Seele, P. (2021). Firms Talk, Suppliers Walk: Analyzing the Locus of Greenwashing in the Blame Game and Introducing ‘Vicarious Greenwashing.’ Journal of Business Ethics, 170(1), 21–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04406-2 

Schleich, J., & Alsheimer, S. (2024). The relationship between willingness to pay and carbon footprint knowledge: Are individuals willing to pay more to offset their carbon footprint if they learn about its size and distance to the 1.5 °C target? Ecological Economics, 219, 108151-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108151 

Selin, N. E. (2013). Carbon Footprint. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/carbon-footprint

COMM 280 (Ethics in Communications) - Journalism and Activism

Introduction

The case study entitled Can Journalists also be Activists (O’Malley Gleim et al., 2022) showcases a number of perspectives regarding the topic of whether journalists should be impartial or partial to a particular cause or perceived injustice. While all journalists have values which align with or go against the values of their audience, perhaps the most important set of values all journalists should have are honesty, providing the full context of the story and acknowledging when they depart from objective reporting and begin subjective activism.

Conflicts in Ethical Values

Traditionally, journalists have not been activists (O’Malley Gleim et al., 2022). At least in the United States, journalists have firstly aimed for impartiality in an effort to avoid being perceived as compromised by one side of a story. A free press in the United States and western countries, acts as a counterbalance to centralized, powerful governments and can hold not only governments, but large institutions accountable for their behavior. In order to maintain credibility and to be a trusted source of information for the public, journalists have generally followed the code of ethics outlined by the organization The Radio, Television, and Digital News Foundation (RTDNF), which states “Journalism places the public’s interests ahead of commercial, political and personal interests. Journalism empowers viewers, listeners and readers to make more informed decisions for themselves; it does not tell people what to believe or how to feel” (“Code of Ethics,” 2015). The RTDNF further states, explicitly, that truth, accuracy and facts take priority above all other values. Any type of slanting of information or prevention of full disclosure violates the trust of the public. 

However, when personal values of journalists take priority over total objectivity, they become activists first. Some journalists, “have argued that attempting to prioritize objectivity over justice only leads to privileging oppressive views” and that in some cases, they should take such a hardline stance as assuming “there are not two sides” to a story (O’Malley Gleim et al., 2022, p. 2). In views such as these, the subjective ethical value takes priority over the value of objective reporting. When the public expects objective reporting of circumstances, context and facts, but instead is told there is only one side to a story, the value of “truth and accuracy above all” (“Code of Ethics,” 2015) takes a back seat.

While activism may be allowed and is often expected in today’s culture, complete honesty in reporting and providing the full context of a particular issue ought to be the gold standard. Once these criteria have been met, a journalist may then delineate where objectivity ends and when opinion and activism begin.

Honesty in Reporting

For journalists, honesty in their reporting ought to be paramount. Any deceptive editing or non-disclosure of key facts and ideas would be considered a violation of the rule of honesty. Some journalists (Gordon, et al., 2011) go so far as to contend all forms of deception for attaining the facts should be forbidden. For example, ABC news producers lied on their job applications to be hired on at Food Lion, in order to obtain footage of tainted food. Eventually a jury awarded Food Lion a verdict against ABC. While some of these rulings were overturned on appeal, the case has underscored the need for journalists to always maintain the highest degree of honesty. The author rightly notes that if a reporter crosses one ethical line, what other infractions would they commit in their quest for a scoop? “Assault? Sexual favors? Murder, to make available information that would ‘save society?’” (2011, p. 521).

Providing the Full Context

Context for a story plays a significant role in ensuring honesty reigns supreme. Reporting mere facts, without providing the full context, is a form of dishonesty and one which may frequently be used by activists in order to advance a desired goal. Gordan, et al. succinctly note that “Journalists who provide as much truthful information as is relevant, and report the material in context, serve the public well and need not worry about additional ethical concerns” (2011, p. 107). By providing the context of quotes, actions and events, the entire story is told and retains the respect of the reader and public.

Demarcating Objective Reporting and Subjective Activism

Activism in journalism changes minds and pushes boundaries. However, if an activist journalist truly wants to sway the public, rather than simply reporting to like-minded people, they must not only maintain a high standard of honesty, but also be clear in their intentions. Two media and communications researchers recently noted strategies for modern media organizations to follow with regard to activism. “These [strategies] include self‐reflection on how journalism itself might change through transparency efforts and how it explains the value of journalistic standards to audiences and provides them with insight into editorial operations” (Maurer & Nuernbergk, 2022, p. 2). Unless activist journalists follow some form of disclosure about their activism, they will continue to be minimized and dismissed by a discerning public.

Conclusion

In sum, all journalists hold values that may align with or differ from those of their audience. However, the most essential values journalists should uphold are honesty, presenting the full context of a story, and openly acknowledging when they shift from objective reporting to subjective activism. If they hold to these standards, they will maintain credibility and more importantly, have a greater chance achieving their activist objectives. 

References

Gordon, A. D., Kittross, J. M., Merrill, J. C., Babcock, W. A., Dorsher, M., Armstrong, J. A., Gade, P. J., Newton, J. H., Sheehan, K., & Singer, J. B. (2011). Honesty in Reporting. In Controversies in Media Ethics (3rd ed., pp. 518–522). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203829912-29

Maurer, P., & Nuernbergk, C. (2022). Journalism, Activism, and Social Media: Exploring the Shifts in Journalistic Roles, Performance, and Interconnectedness. Media and Communication (Lisboa), 10(3), 1-. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v10i3.5984

O’Malley Gleim, K., Williams, K., & Stroud, S. R. (2022, October 31). Can Journalists also be Activists? - Center for Media Engagement - Center for Media Engagement. Mediaengagement.org. https://mediaengagement.org/research/can-journalists-also-be-activists/

“Code of Ethics.” (2015, June 11). Radio Television Digital News Foundation. Available at: https://www.rtdna.org/content/rtdna_code_of_ethics